WsSW3^ 


***J»1i«H»»-l- 


/  .olLf  .'01. 


^^^  PRINCETON,  N.  J.  ^jjj 


Purchased  by  the   Hamill   Missionary  Fund, 


BV  3265  .B43  1895 

Beach,  Harlan  Page,  1854- 

1933. 
The  cross  in  the  land  of  th 

trident 


THE  CROSS 


IN  THE 


LAND  OF  THE  TRIDENT 


By   HARLAN    P.  BEACH 

Educational  Secretary  of  the  Sttident    Volunteer  Movement  for   Foreign 
Missions;  formerly  a  Missionary  in  China, 


FLEMING  H.  REVELL  COMPANY 
NEW  YORK  CHICAGO  TORONTO 

Publishers  of  Evangelical  Literature 


CX>PYRIGHT,  1895,  by  FI^EMING  H.  REVKI,!,  CO. 


PREFACE. 

THIS  little  book  is  primarily  intended  for  missionary 
study  classes,  yet  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  be  of  value  also  to 
other  readers.  Only  a  few  topics  are  discussed,  but  they 
are  such  as  most  vitally  concern  India,  considered  from 
a  missionary  point  of  view. 

Following  each  chapter  will  be  found  a  number  of 
suggested  readings.  The  limited  size  of  this  book  pre- 
vents anything  save  an  outline  statement  of  the  sub- 
jects treated,  and  the  readings  will  prove  useful  to  those 
who  wish  fuller  details.  Their  number  has  been  multi- 
plied, not  with  the  expectation  that  all  will  be  read  by 
any  one  person,  but  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  class 
to  each  of  whose  members  different  readings  may  be  as- 
signed, or  whose  library  m^,y  not  contain  a  large  collec- 
tion of  books  on  India.  In  such  a  case,  a  few,  at  least, 
of  the  books  will  be  found  out  of  the  large  number 
named.  To  facilitate  their  use,  the  pages  or  chapters 
bearing  on  the  topic  are  in  most  cases  designated.  Pe- 
riodical literature,  both  secular  and  missionary,  is  so 
abundant  that  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  suggest 
such  articles  with  the  sole  exception  of  those  in  Tht 
Missionary  Review  of  the  V/orld,  which  for  obvious 
reasons  has  been  freely  used.  Books  in  foreign  lan- 
guages have  been  consulted  in  preparing  the  chapters, 
but  are  not  referred  to  in  the  list  of  readings,  though  here 
again  another  exception  has  been  made  in  the  case  of 


6  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

M.  Levi's  article  in  Za    Grande    Encyclopedie,   one  of 
exceptional  value. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  the 
writers  whose  works  are  named  in  the  reading  lists.  He 
also  wishes  to  express  his  gratitude  to  Revs.  J.  W. 
Conklin  and  R.  P.  Wilder  and  to  Bishop  Thoburn  who 
have  contributed  to  the  closing  chapter. 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter.  Page. 

I.  Arya-Varta,  "the  Land  of  the  Aryans'*    •       9 

II.  India's  Past ig 

III.  The  Common  Life 31 

IV.  The  Religious  Life  of  the  Masses    .         .     43 
V.  India's  Real  Man  and  Woman    .         .        .57 

VI.  Christian  Missions  in  India        .         •         .69 

VII.  Present  Phases  OF  Missionary  Work        .     83 

VIII.  India's  Appeal  to  American  Students        .     96 

Appendixes  ------  109 


"What  am  I  to  understand  by  the  Trident?  The 
answer  is,  the  Trident  is  a  three-pronged  fork  which 
appears  in  every  Siva  temple  in  India.  It  doubtless  in- 
dicates the  later  Hindu  Triad.  It  has  thus  come  to  be 
regarded  as  a  symbol  of  the  Hindu  religion." 

— J.  Vaughan, 
T%e  Trident,  the  Crescent,  and  the  Cross. 


The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ARYA-VARTA,        "THE  LAND  OF  THE  ARYANS." 

"Another  world;  a  world  in  itself.  That  is  what  India  pre- 
eminently   is,    and    therein    lies    the    charm." 

— IZwe.  Ragozin,  "Vedic  India.'* 

Some  Names  and  their  Signification... 

"The  Wonderland  of  the  East"  is  officially  known  in 
the  vernacular  as  Hind,  while  in  English  it  is  India. 
Hind  was  a  name  applied  by  the  Persians  to  dwellers  on 
the  Sindhu,  a  Sanskrit  word,  meaning  "river,"  especially 
the  Indus.  India  is  only  a  Greek  variation  of  Hind.  A 
favorite  Sanskrit  appellation,  Bharata-varsha,  "land  of 
Bharata,"  is  derived  from  a  legendary  monarch  of  the 
Lunar  Dynasty  named  Bharata.  Hindustan  dates 
from  the  Muhamm.idan  conquest  and  signifies  the  "land 
of  the  Hindus."  It  is,  however,  strictly  applicable  only 
to  northern  India,  or  a  portion  of  it. 

India's  Position  and  Area... 

It  constitutes  the  central  peninsula  of  Southern  Asia, 
While  not  a  continent,  its  great  area,  vast  population  and 
varied  races,  together  with  its  lofty  mountain  and  oceap 
boundaries,  delimiting  it  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  give 
it  continental  features.    The  Indian  Empire   extend? 


10  The  Cross  In  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

through  29  degrees  of  latitude  and  36  degrees  of  longi- 
tude. If  it  were  laid  upon  the  map  of  America,  its 
northernmost  point  would  be  in  the  latitude  of  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  while  its  southernmost  cape  would  reach  a 
little  farther  south  than  Panama.  If  the  extreme  east- 
ern boundary  were  placed  on  Baltimore,  the  western 
limit  would  be  near  Salt  Lake  City.  Within  its  boun- 
daries could  be  placed,  twice  over,  the  United  States  east 
of  the  Mississippi,  if  Ohio  and  Indiana  were  left  out; 
while  the  New  England  and  Middle  States  would  need  to 
be  nine  and  one-half  times  as  large  as  they  are  to  cover 
the  entire  country. 

Main  Geographical  Divisions... 

Roughly  speaking  and  including  Burma,  there  are 
four  great  divisions. 

I.  T/ie  Himalayan  Region.  This  ''abode  of  the 
snow,"  as  its  name  is  translated,  stretches  over  northern 
India  like  a  huge  scimitar,  with  its  sharp  edge  turned  to 
the  south.  The  area  of  this  region  Bishop  Thoburn 
bounds  comparatively  by  a  line  drawn  from  British  Co- 
lumbia to  Lake  Brie,  thence  to  Atlanta,  thence  to  south- 
ern Oregon,  and  northward  to  the  starting  point. 
Mountain  spurs  running  southeast  from  Atlanta  to  the 
ocean,  and  southwest  from  Oregon  to  the  Pacific  com- 
plete the  parallel.  The  immense  region  is  covered  with 
ranges,  the  southern  one  being  the  highest,  rising  as  it 
does,  from  a  few  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  to  five  and 
a  half  miles,  nearly,  in  Mt.  Everest,  earth's  highest  meas- 
ured elevation. 

Though  sparsely  inhabited  and  sending  down  to  the 
plain  on  the  backs  of  yaks  and  sheep  little  wealth,  its 
scenery  is  incomparably  more  grand  than  that  of  the 
Alps  and  the  Andes.  Nor  is  it  sublime  merely;  in  the 
lower  ranges,  especially  on  the  southern  slopes,  thickets 
of  tree-fern  and  bamboo,  red  and  pink  rhododendrons 
the  size  of  trees,  mosses,  ferns  and  orchids  of  varied  hue, 
together  with  the  mosaic  formed  by  red  and  yellow  mil- 
let fields,  constitute  a  scene  of  rare  beauty. 


Arya-Tarta,  "The  Land  of  the  Aryans."  11 

India  owes  much  of  what  it  is  to  these  mountains. 
They  have  been  its  buhvarks  against  northern  invaders. 
They  condense  the  moisture  hurled  against  them  by  the 
monsoon,  and  send  back  to  the  plain  fertiUzing  showers. 
They  are  the  reservoir  whence  much  of  the  land  receives 
its  allowance  of  moisture  during  the  dry  season.  It  is 
not  strange  that  the  Hindu  has  placed  in  so  beneficent  a 
region  his  Olympus  with  its  many  gods. 

2.  T/ie  River  Plains.  These  extend  across  the  country 
south  of  the  region  just  described,  and  contain  India's 
three  greatest  rivers  with  their  tributaries,  the  Indus, 
Brahmaputra  and  Ganges.  Having  their  rise  in  the 
Himalayas  and  draining  a  portion  of  country  which  has 
the  greatest  recorded  rainfall  of  the  globe,  they  consti- 
tute the  life  of  the  most  populous  section  of  India.  To 
the  ancients  the  Indus  was  so  broad  that  they  called  it 
the  "ocean;"  the  stream  which  broke  through  the  moun- 
tains on  the  northeast  could  be  no  other  than  the  "Son  of 
God,"  Brahmaputra;  while  the  river  which  brought 
yearly  to  their  doors  sufficient  fertilizing  mud  to  fill 
enough  fifty-ton  freight  cars  to  stretch  two  and  a  half 
times  around  the  world — this  was  "Mother  Ganga,"  "go 
go,"  as  Max  Miiller  defines  it,  ever  ganging  its  onward 
gait  in  the  service  of  humanity.  This  river  is  not  only 
one  of  the  most  frequented  w^ater  ways  of  the  world,  but 
also  one  of  the  most  holy.  The  three  rivers  first  create  the 
land,  afterward  fertilize  it  and  then  transport  its  produce. 
Often,  too,  they  bring  devastating  floods. 

The  scenery  of  the  plains  is  charming.  Streams, 
tilled  fields,  mango  groves,  mud  villages  shaded  by  no- 
ble trees,  bamboo  thickets,  stately  pipal  trees,  wide- 
spreading  banyans  and  feathery  palms  make  it  a  fairy 
land.  This  region  was  the  theater  of  the  great  race 
movements  of  India's  history,  and  the  seat  of  its  early 
civilization. 

3.  The  Dec  can,  or  ^' South'^  Region.  This  elevated 
section  lies  south  of  a  line  drawn  west  from  Calcutta  to 
the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  It  is  a  triangle,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Vindhya  range,  on  the  southeast  by  the 


12  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Eastern  Ghats,  and  on  the  southwest  by  the  Western 
Ghats.  In  earlier  ages  the  Vindhya  Mountains,  not  be- 
ing easily  crossed,  formed  the  Deccan's  Himalayas  and 
so  kept  it  aloof  from  the  more  cultivated  Aryan  district, 
although  the  Southern  Dravidians  maintained  a  long 
struggle  with  their  northern  neighbors. 

The  Western  Ghats,  rising  abruptly  from  the  sea,  shut 
off  much  of  the  moisture  from  the  interior,  yet  when 
water  is  obtainable  the  rich  black  soil  yields  abundant 
harvests.  Here,  too,  lies  most  of  the  mineral  wealth  of 
the  Empire  and  on  this  tableland  Christianity  has 
made  its  influence  more  widely  felt  than  elsewhere  in 
India. 

As  to  scenery,  the  plateau  is  "a  vast  mass  of  forests, 
ridges  and  peaks,  broken  by  cultivated  valleys  and  high- 
lying  plains."  The  Ghats  at  places  "rise  in  magnificent 
precipices  and  headlands  out  of  the  ocean,  and  truly  look 
like  eternal  landing  stairs — ghats — from  the  sea." 

4.  Burma.  Though  it  constitutes  part  of  India,  this 
fourth  region,  as  also  the  crown  colony  of  Ceylon,  will 
not  here  be  described.  While  of  great  interest  to  the 
student  of  Missions,  we  are  at  present  concerned  only 
with  the  above  mentioned  three  regions  of  India  proper. 

Natural  Resources  of  India... 

A  brief  mention  of  them  must  suffice. 

I.  Forest  Wealth.  Excluding  Burma  and  Bengal, 
India's  forests  cover  a  section  as  large,  almost,  as  New 
England  and  New  Jersey,  while  in  most  parts  of  the 
country  trees  are  found  in  smaller  numbers.  The  teak, 
ebony  and  larch  have  been  famous  from  early  times.Less 
valuable  are  the  cedar,  fir  and  juniper.  Immense  elms,, 
capable  of  seating  six  hundred  persons  in  their  shade, 
are  found,  while  bamboos  attain  the  great  height  of  sixty 
feet.  The  most  remarkable  trees  are  the  immense  ban- 
yans and  the  sacred  fig  or  pipal  trees,  though  not  so  val- 
uable as  others.  The  mango,  orange  and  palm  are, 
among  fruit  trees,  the  most  highly  prized  by  the  vil- 
lagers. 


Arya-Yarta ,  "The  Land  of  the  Aryans:*  .  13 

Denudation  of  these  forests  had  gone  on  most  reck- 
lessly until  the  Government  appointed  a  forestry  com- 
mission who  have  control  throughout  the  Empire  over 
100,000  square  miles  of  forest  with  the  most  happy  re- 
sults. 

2.  Agricultural  Resources.  While  the  Hindus  are  pre- 
eminently an  agricultural  people  and  the  population  is 
dense,  only  about  one-third  of  the  country  is  cultivated 
or  grazed.  Nearly  a  fourth  of  the  land  lies  idle,  though 
ranked  as  cultivable.  This  speaks  volumes  for  the  agri- 
cultural possibilities  of  the  Empire.  In  many  places  two 
and  even  three  crops  a  year  can  be  raised,  and  that,  too, 
without  exhausting  the  soil.  The  recent  development  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  results  coming 
from  the  education  of  Indian  students  in  agricultural  col- 
leges of  Europe,  together  with  increased  irrigation, 
mean  much  for  the  farming  of  the  future. 

The  principal  crops  are  given  below  in  the  order  of 
acreage  devoted  to  each,  beginning  with  the  lowest  and 
ending  with  the  highest.  They  are : — Tea,  tobacco,  in- 
digo, sugar  cane,  oil  seeds,  cotton,  wheat,  rice,  other  food 
grains. 

In  spite  of  her  agricultural  wealth,  India  suffers  great- 
ly from  famines.This  is  especially  so  in  the  interior  of  the 
Deccan  and  in  sections  of  Oudh.  Its  greatest  famine, — 
that  of  1876-8, — brought  suffering  from  insufhcient  food, 
disease  or  death  to  16,000,000  people  and  cost  the  Gov- 
ernment for  relief  work  $55,000,000.  Due  largely  to 
failure  of  the  monsoons  and  insufficient  water  supply,  as 
also  to  inadequate  transportation,  the  Government  has 
taken  steps  to  remedy  the  evil  by  building  irrigating 
canals  and  extending  roads  and  railways.  It  also  sets 
apart  in  periods  of  plenty  a  yearly  sum  of  from  five  to 
seven  million  dollars  as  a  fund  for  famine  rehef. 

3.  Animal  Life.  In  a  sense  this  is  an  important  re- 
source to  India.  She  could  hardly  exist  without  buf- 
faloes, oxen,  donkeys,  mules,  sheep,  goat5,  and  pigs, 
Bulls,  cows  and  monkeys  are  held  sacred.  Elephants 
are  mainly  useful  for  purposes  of  hunting  and  state.  (■ 


14  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Among  wild  animals,  tigers,  if  not  "man  eaters,"  prove 
helpful  to  the  farmers  by  destroying  antelopes,  deer  and 
wild  hogs.  Lions,  leopards,  wolves,  bears  and  the 
rhinoceros  are  harmful.  Only  two  animal  foes  are  of 
great  importance;  the  tiger  and,  above  all,  poisonous  rep- 
tiles. Nine  years  ago  24,841  persons  were  killed  by  wild 
beasts  in  British  India  alone,  22,134  of  whom  died  from 
snake  bites. 

The  foreigner  notes  with  surprise  the  presence  of  crows 
and  storks  in  many  of  the  villages  and  towns.  Though 
the  former  are  as  troublesome  as  magpies,  they  are  also 
useful  as  scavengers,  for  .which  latter  purpose  the  stork 
is  even  more  desirable. 

Two  insects  are  a  source  of  revenue  to  the  Empire :  the 
lac  insect  which  furnishes  large  quantities  of  shellac  and 
also  lac-dyes,  and  the  silk  worm.  Together  their  pro- 
ducts constitute  an  important  part  of  India's  exports. 

4.  Mineral  Wealth.  In  spite  of  the  stories  of  India's 
Golconda,  she  is  not  rich  in  minerals.  Diamonds  are  few, 
and  gold  occurs  in  too  small  quantities  to  repay  the  ex- 
ploiter. Far  more  important  are  the  coal  mines, — excel- 
ling in  extent  the  measures  of  all  lands  except  the  United 
States,  China  and  Australia, — the  petroleum  wells  of 
Punjab  and  Assam,  the  salt  cliffs  of  northeastern  Punjab, 
the  saltpeter  of  the  upper  Ganges,  the  copper  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  iron  of  purest  quality  which  is  found 
everywhere.  Iron,  however,  is  extensively  imported 
owing  to  the  distance  from  each  other  of  the  essentials 
for  iron  working, — the  ore,  flux  and  fuel, — and  also  to 
the  fact  that  the  excessive  amount  of  ash  in  the  Indian 
coal  chokes  the  furnaces. 

Climatic  Conditions... 

These  necessarily  vary  owing  to  the  wide  range  of 
latitude  and  elevation,  and  to  the  distance  from  the 
ocean. 

I.  Temperature.  In  general  it  is  like  that  of  semi- 
tropical  countries.  Missionaries  usually  sufifer  from  the 
heat  in  inverse  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the 


Arya-Yarta  ,  *'The  Land  of  the  Aryans,'*  15 

equator,  northern  India  being  much  more  trying  than 
the  extreme  South.  Most  of  the  Empire  Hes  between 
the  July  isothermal  line  of  80  degrees  F.  in  the  South 
and  90  degrees  in  the  North ;  while  in  January  it  lies  be- 
tween the  lines  of  80  degrees  in  the  South  and  60  degrees 
in  the  North. 

2.  Rainfall.  The  rains  due  to  the  monsoon  are  in 
the  northeast  excessive,  at  one  place  averaging  30  ft. 
annually  and  one  year  reaching  as  high  as  6y  ft.  In 
the  Deccan  and  the  upper  basin  of  the  Ganges  and 
Indus,  it  is  but  2\  feet.  Taken  as  a  whole,  India  is 
somewhat  arid  and  depends  largely  on  reservoirs  and 
irrigating  canals.  The  humidity  experienced,  however, 
in  the  rainy  season  and  immediately  thereafter  is  harder 
to  endure  than  the  greater  dry  heat  of  the  dry  season. 

3.  The  Seasons  and  Their  Effect  on  Health.  Every- 
where throughout  the  country  there  are  at  least  three 
well  marked  seasons: — the  cool  and  pleasant  season, 
extending  from  October  or  November  to  the  middle  of 
February;  the  hot  season,  usually  healthy  if  undue  ex- 
posure is  avoided,  beginning  in  February  and  ending 
with  May;  and  the  wet  season,  the  months  from  June 
to  October,  which  is  the  most  unhealthful  season  of  all.. 
In  the  dry  season,  the  heat  during  three  months  is  so 
great  that  all  traces  of  vegetation  except  fruit  and  forest 
trees,  disappear.  Early  in  June  the  Monsoon  bursts 
and  rains  or  showers  occur  almost  daily  until  Septem- 
ber, causing  the  parched  ground  to  bloom  luxuriantly. 
At  the  close  of  the  rains  comes  a  month  of  most  un- 
healthful weather  owing  to  the  great  moisture  and  the 
consequent  decay  of  vegetation. 

The  Effect  of  tke  Land  upon  its  Inhabitants... 

While  foreigners  are  but  few  it  will  be  well  to  note  the 
different  effects  on  natives  and  foreigners,  and  hence  the 
two  classes  will  be  treated  separately. 

I.  The  Native  Races.  Buckle's  theory  of  history,  as 
Prof.  Flint  has  pointed  out,  "denies  the  influence  of  race 
without  adequate  consideration,  and  so  exaggerates  the 


16  The  Cross  in  tJie  Land  of  the  Trident. 

power  of  climate,  soil,  food  and  the  aspects  of  nature, 
as  at  times  to  be  fairly  chargeable  with  physical  fatal- 
ism." Still,  no  one  would  question  the  fact  that,  apart 
from  other  elements,  the  Hindus  to-day  have  been 
largely  influenced  by  the  climate  and  soil  which  greeted 
the  Aryan  upon  his  arrival  in  India.  The  leisure 
afiforded  by  so  rich  a  district  as  the  river  plains,  and  the 
favoring  climate  were  a  rich  endowment  to  him.  So, 
too,  the  aspects  of  nature  would  directly  influence  ''the 
accumulation  and  distribution  of  thought,  the  imagina- 
tion being  stimulated  and  the  understanding  subdued 
when  the  phenomena  of  the  natural  world  are  sublime 
and  terrible,  the  understanding  being  emboldened  and 
the  imagination  curbed  when  they  are  small  and  feeble.'' 
A  native  author  thus  writes  concerning  his  countrymen : 
— "All  nature  conspired  to  make  them  thoughtful  and 
imaginative.  What  was  more  pleasant  than  on  a  hot 
afternoon  to  sit  under  the  umbrageous  banyan  or  pipal 
tree  and  reflect  or  discuss?  Microcosm  was  the  study 
of  the  Hindu  as  Macrocosm  has  been  that  of  the  mod- 
ern European.  Moral  science  was  the  intellectual  basis 
of  Hindu  civilization  as  natural  science  is  that  of  the 
modern  civilization  of  Europe."  Whether  the  result  of 
environment  or  not,  it  is  true  that  compared  with  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  the  Hindu  has  been  overcome  by  nature 
rather  than  made  himself  nature's  conqueror.  Hence 
we  have  a  weaker  race  than  the  western  Aryans  have* 
come  to  be. 

A  helpful  though  indirect  influence  upon  the  inhabi- 
tants has  been  exerted  because  Indian  soil  from  early 
times  has  been  deemed  the  'Trize  of  the  East."  This 
led  inevitably  to  a  continuous  influx  of  new  race  ele- 
ments, and  in  consequence  the  Hindu  shares  some  of 
the  advantages  of  the  intermixture  of  varied  bloods.  If 
caste  and  other  causes  had  not  prevented  a  larger  amal- 
gamation of  races,  he  would,  however,  have  been  a 
stronger  man  than  he  is. 

2.  T/ie  Indian  Environment  and  Foreigners.  It  is  use- 
less to  deny  that  Indian  climate,  taken  as  a  whole,  is 
less  favorable  to  an  American  than  that  -of  this  coun- 


Arya-VarU  ,  "The  Land  of  the  Aryans."  '  I7 

try.  Some  cannot  endure  it  at  all,  but  most  persons  can 
live  to  a  good  old  age,  if  they  exercise  proper  care. 
Realizing  that  he  is  an  exotic,  the  American  will  gov- 
ern himself  accordingly.  Care  in  protecting  oneself 
from  the  sun,  sufficiency  of  sleep,  including  a  daily 
siesta  if  need  be,  and  paying  a  due  regard  to  food  and 
recreation,  will  win  many  a  missionary  battle.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  elevated  regions  are  accessible 
from  every  mission  station  and  can  be  fled  to  in  case  of 
special  necessity  or  during  the  unhealthful  months. 

Diseases  such  as  smallpox  and  cholera  must  be  con- 
sidered, yet  few  foreigners  die  of  these,  while  they  are 
relieved  of  the  presence  of  scarlet  fever,  diptheria  and 
spinal  meningitis,  so  fatal  in  the  home  land. 

Exaggerated  stories  of  scorpions,  centipedes  and  the 
dreaded  cobra  often  make  the  missionary  candidate 
timid  as  he  thinks  of  India.  Bishop  Thoburn  testifies, 
however,  that  during  a  residence  of  thirty-three  years 
in  that  country  he  has  never  known  one  European  to 
be  bitten  by  a  venomous  serpent  or  stung  by  a  centi- 
pede. It  is  true  that  many  natives  die  yearly  from 
snake  bites  but  it  is  usually  due  to  their  going  about 
bare-legged  and  sleeping  on  earth  floors  or  in  the  open 
air.  To  foreigners  resident  in  the  country  such  dan- 
gers are  regarded  much  as  we  look  upon  lightning. 

Almost  to  a  man  India's  missionaries  who  are  absent 
on  furlough,  are  anxious  to  return  to  their  Indian  home 
and  work,  which  they  love  most  dearly.  And  while  it 
sometimes  happens  that  children  born  to  foreigners  in 
India  are  feeble  and  shortlived,  there  is  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  the  children  of  such  residents  doing  a  valuable 
work  there  to  prove  the  rule  that  proper  care  of  the 
exotic  will  enable  it  to  produce  other  plants  as  strong, 
almost,  as  if  indigenous  to  the  country. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Encyclopaedias:  See  article  "India"  in  the  various  encyclopae- 
dias, especially  Hunter's  in  the  Brittanica,  Temple's  in  Cham- 
ber's (edition  of  1891),  and  Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1891). 
Also  "Inde"  by  Levi  in  La  Grande  Encyclopedie  (1894). 


18  TJie  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 


Chisholm:    Longman's  New  Atlas,  (] 

Church  Missionary  Atlas,  Pt.  II.,  India,  (1887),  pp.  81,  82. 

Constable:    Hand-Atlas  of  India,  (1893), 

Downey:    The  History  of  the  Telugu  Mission,  (1893),  Ch.  I. 

Feudge:    India,  (1881),  Ch.  I. 

Gracey:    India,  (1884),  Pp.  1-6. 

Hunter:  Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  (1892),  Ch.  I. 
The  Indian  Empire,  (1886,  same  as  Vol.  VI.  Imperial  Gazet- 
teer of  India),  Chs.  I.,  XVII..  XXL.  XXIII.,  XXIV. 

Hurst:    Indika.  (1891),  Chs.  VII.,  VIII. 

Johnston:    Atlas  of  India,  (1894). 

Lethhridge:    History  of  India,  (1881),  maps  throughout. 

Ragozin:    Vedic  India,  (1895),  Ch.  I. 

Reclus:  The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,  (1884),  Vol.  III.,  Ch. 
IL 

Ridpath:  Great  Races  of  Mankind,  (1893),  Chs.  XXXVL, 
XXXVIIL 

RobMns:    Handbook  of  India,  (1883),  Ch.  I. 

Rowe:  Every-day  Life  in  India,  (1881),  Chs.  XXIV.,  XXIX., 
XXXIL 

Saunders:    An  Atlas  of  India,  (1889). 

Storrow:    India,  Part  I.,  (1883),  Pp.  7-12. 

Strachey:    India,  (1894),  Chs.  IL,  III. 

Temple:    India  in  1880,  (1882),  Ch.  IL,  XVII. 

Thoburn:    India  and  Malaysia,  (1893),  Ch.  I. 

Trotter:    History  of  India,  (1874),  Pp-  XLV-LXI. 

Urwick:    Indian  Pictures,  (1881),  Pp.  41-219. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INDIA'S    PAST. 

"It  is  a  favorite  maxim  of  mine,  that  history,  while  it  should 
be  scientific  in  its  method,  should  pursue  a  practical  object. 
That  is,  it  should  not  only  gratify  the  reader's  curiosity  about 
the  past,  but  modify  his  views  of  the  present,  and  his  forecast 
of  the  future."    — Prof.  J.  R.  Seeley,  "Expansion  of  England." 

Has  India  a  History... 

The  small  space  occupied  by  India  in  histories  of 
the  worid,  would  suggest  that  she  has  no  history  worth 
recording.  This  impression  is  strengthened  by 
thoughtful  writers,  one  of  whom,  E.  A.  Lawrence,  D.  D., 
has  recently  said,  "Until  of  late  India  has  never  had 
a  history,  not  only  because  the  Hindus  have  never  had 
the  historic  sense  to  write  one  page  of  it,  but  yet  more 
because  they  have  never  had  the  national  life  to  create 
one  year  of  it."  Even  India's  staunch  friend.  Max 
Muller,  admits  that  "history,  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word,  is  almost  unknown  in  Indian  literature." 

In  spite  of  such  utterances,  if  written  and  technical 
annals  are  not  regarded  as  essential  to  history,  if  the  same 
weight  is  given  to  Aryan  myths  and  epics  as  to  those 
of  Greece  and  Rome,  if  history  is  the  "biography  of  a 
society,"  India  has  one,  and  a  history  well  worthy  of 
study,  especially  by  the  friends  of  religion. 

Sources  of  Indian  History... 

While  not  so  trustworthy  and  full  as  in  the  case  of 
the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Israel,  Egypt,  Assyria     and 


20  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

China,  the  sources  of  her  history  are  such  as  to  render  it 
worthy  of  credence.  They  He  in  the  rich  mines  of  com- 
parative philology;  they  are  embodied  in  the  traditions 
and  literature  of  her  people;  they  are  found  in  ancient 
institutions  still  surviving.  Monuments,  inscriptions  and 
coins  of  an  early  period,  corroborate,  in  many  instances, 
the  testimony  of  song  and  legend;  fairly  trustworthy 
chronicles  furnish  a  record  of  her  past;  while  books  of 
history  and  travel  of  other  nations  warrant  the  historian 
in  attributing  to  these  varied  elements  a  high  value. 

Characterization  of  Successive  Periods  of  Indian  History... 

Though  the  divisions  adopted  by  native  historians 
are  helpful,  notably  those  of  R.  C.  Dutt,  for  present  pur- 
poses another  eight-fold  division  is  here  followed. 
Definite  time  limts  cannot  always  be  given,  and  only 
salient  features  of  each  period  will  be  noted. 

I.  Aboriginal  Period.  Records  of  this  prehistoric  era 
are  lacking.  Yet  in  the  Narbada  valley  are  found  the 
agate  knives  and  rough  flint  weapons  of  a  race  of  men 
who  were  succeeded  by  a  people  using  poHshed  flint 
weapons  and  possessing  finely  wrought  implements  of 
stone,  and  who  made  use  of  metal.  A  still  later  race 
have  left  traces  of  themselves  in  the  upright  stone  slabs 
and  in  the  mounds  beneath  which  their  dead  were  buried, 
surrounded  by  pots  of  thin  earthen  ware,  iron  weapons 
and  ornaments  of  copper  and  gold. 

Aryan  descriptions  of  these  aborigines  picture  them 
as  *'blackskinned,'^"flat-nosed,"  ''disturbers  of  sacrifice," 
"lawless,"  ''raw-eaters,"  "without  gods  and  without 
""  rites."  Their  smallness  of  stature,  broad  cheek-bones, 
low  foreheads  and  large  mouth  gave  them  the  appear- 
ance of  Tartars.  There  were  others,  however,  more 
civilized,  wealthy,  possessed  of  castles  and  forts  and 
wont  to  adorn  the  bodies  of  their  dead  with  gifts,  with 
raiment,  with  ornaments,  imagining  "that  thereby  they 
shall  attain  the  world  to  come." 

At  least  two  inroads  seem  to  have  been  made  upon 


India's  Past,  21 

these  aborigines : — one,  from  the  northeast,  by  the  Ko- 
larians,  represented  to-day  by  the  Santals,  Bhils,  and 
other  tribes;  the  second  being  Dravidian  and  coming 
from  the  northwest.  The  rude  civiHzation  of  the  latter 
race  spread  over  India  and  is  still  traceable  m  the  South. 
Their  modern  representatives  are  found  in  the  hill 
tribes,  Gonds,  Konds  and  others.  During  this  period 
the  prime\^al  forest  was  only  broken  here  and  there  by 
cultivated  land  and  rude  habitations. 

2.  T/ie  Vedic  Period  The  life  of  this  period  is  graph- 
ically portrayed  in  the  Vedas  and  in  the  two  great  epics 
of  India.  At  least  as  early  as  looo  B.  C,  perhaps  400 
or  1000  years  earlier,  the  Aryans  left  their  home  in  cen- 
tral Asia  and  entered  India  from  the  northwest.  Set- 
tling along  the  Indus,  they  received  the  name  Hindu,  a 
variation  of  the  word  Indus.  Later  they  occupied  the 
Punjab,  or  "land  of  five  rivers,"  tributaries  of  the  Indus, 
and  eventually  spread  over  most  of  India,  driving  back 
the  aborigines. 

Tall  and  handsome,  of  remarkable  intellectual  power 
for  that  age,  speaking  the  Sanskrit,  which  rivals  the 
Greek  in  point  of  elaborateness,  full  of  poetic  fire,  these 
"nobles"  built  houses,  tilled  the  soil,  exalted  the  family 
life  and  gave  woman  a  high  place  in  their  esteem.  They 
ate  beef,  fermented  liquors,  used  money  and  developed 
the  village  into  the  town,  where  all  necessary  trades  and 
many  of  the  arts  flourished. 

The  Aryans  v/ere  pre-eminently  religious.  Their 
earliest  sacred  book,  the  Rig-Veda,  is  one  of  the  master- 
pieces of  literature.  The  gods  which  it  reveals  were 
"bright  gods";  the  hymns  in  their  honor  were  most 
sublime.  Though  henotheism  or  polytheism  was  char- 
acteristic of  Vedic  belief,  it  had  not  yet  become  cor- 
rupted. The  beginnings  of  this  decay  came  with  the  rise 
of   Brahmanism. 

Caste,  which  had  its  origin  soon  after  the  Aryans  en- 
tered India,  took  a  definite,  four-fold  form  during  this 
period,  but  was  far  less  evil  than  the  present  system. 

As  Brahmanism  developed,  theology,  logic,  grammar, 


22  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

philosophy,  Hterature,  astronomy,  mathematics,  medi- 
cine, music,  law,  and  the  drama  were  cultivated,  so  that 
India  was  the  light  of  the  East.  This  period  was  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  in  Hindu  history. 

3.  T/ie  Buddhist  Period,  343  B.  C. — goo  A,  D 
Brahmanism  and  the  attendant  rationalism  had  resulted 
in  the  sixth  century  before  Christ  in  corruption,  thus 
paving  the  way  for  the  great  Indian  reformer,  Gautama 
Buddha.  The  simple  and  purified  faith  of  this  man,  with 
its  fruitage  of  self  culture  and  universal  love,  spread  from 
the  modern  province  of  Oudh,  its  birthplace,  over  all 
India.  Under  Asoka,  King  of  Magadha,  (Behar), 
Buddhism  became  the  state  religion. 

This  Buddhist  Con&tantine,  whose  sway  extended 
over  most  of  India,  has  left  engraven  on  pillars  forty 
royal  sermons.  Wells  were  to  be  dug  and  trees  planted 
for  wayfarers.  Hospitals  for  men  and  animals,  careful 
supervision  of  morals,  the  instruction  of  women  and 
youths,  were  part  of  his  program.  Buddhism  at  that 
time  was  not  only  the  most  tolerant,  but  also  the  most 
intensely  missionary  religion  in  the  world.  Its  votaries 
"were  to  mix  equally  with  soldiers,  Brahmans  and  beg- 
gars, with  the  dreaded  and  despised,  both  within  the 
kingdom  and  in  foreign  countries,  teaching  better 
things."  A  state  department,  established  for  this  pur- 
pose, sent  out  missionaries  who  were  to  "intermingle 
among  all  unbelievers  even  to  the  utmost  limit  of  bar- 
barian lands."  Asoka's  own  son  and  daughter  were 
missionaries  to  Ceylon,  where  Buddhism  speedily  be- 
came, and  still  remains,  the  state  religion.  Through  his 
Great  Council,  the  Canon  of  Southern  Buddhism  was 
fixed  upon;  and  later,  in  80  B.  C,  the  Canon  was  written 
out  in  Singhalese,  from  which  tongue  it  was  translated 
into  its  present  form  about  430  A.  D.  In  less  than 
seven  centuries,  Southern  Buddhism  had  spread  Into 
Burma,  Siam,  Sumatra  and  Java. 

Kanishka,  the  Scythian  King  of  northwestern  India, 
played  a  hardly  less  important  part  in  the  history  of  this 
religion.  About  forty  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ  he 
held  the  last  great  Council  of  Buddhism  to  revise  the 


Indians  Past.  53 

Canon.  This  revision  by  the  progressive  party,  known 
as  the  Greater  Vehicle,  is  in  Sanskrit  and  is  held  by  the 
Northern  Buddhist  of  Tibet,  China,  Mongolia  and 
Japan,  in  which  regions  it  early  gained  a  foothold. 
Under  his  patronage  the  faith  entered  upon  a  second  pe- 
riod of  missionary  revival. 

Once  more  in  634  A.  D.  the  Buddhist  King  Siladitya 
tried  to  revive  the  decaying  faith  by  a  council,  but  it 
proved  to  be  a  compromise  in  which  statues  of  Buddha, 
the  Sun-god  and  Siva  were  successively  installed.  Even 
his  Monastery  of  Nalanda,  recalling  the  Christian  Uni- 
versities of  the  middle  ages,  and  its  ten  thousand  moni^ 
studying  various  sciences,  failed  to  galvanize  the  system 
into  life.  Brahmanism  gained  the  victory  in  800  A.  D. 
and  a  century  later  Buddhism  was  banished  from  the 
land  of  its  birth. 

During  these  fourteen  centuries  it  had  been  a  mighty 
reformatory  agency  and  had  conferred  great  benefits 
upon  India  and  northern  and  eastern  Asia.  Jainism, 
a  form  of  religion  allied  to  Buddhism,  still  exists  and  is 
effective,  but  otherwise  Buddhism  practically  no  longer 
survives  in  India  proper,  though  it  is  the  religion  of 
Burma  and  Ceylon. 

4.  T/ie  Greek,  Graeco-Bactrian  and  Scythian  Inva- 
sions^ J27  B.  C.  soo  A.  D.  Interjected  between  the  ear- 
lier and  later  Buddhism  of  the  period  just  described, 
came  the  invasions  of  the  Greeks  and  Bactrians,  327-161 
B.  C,  and  of  the  Scythians,  100  B.  C.-500  A.  D. 
Though  previously  known  to  the  western  world  through 
the  Hebrew  Bible,  Homer,  Herodotus  and  other  Greek 
authors,  India's  external  history  dates  from  the  expedi- 
tion of  Alexander  in  327  B.  C.  His  armies  went  no 
further  than  northwestern  India  and  never  thoroughly 
subjugated  a  single  province;  yet  Alexander  made  alli- 
ances, founded  cities,  planted  Greek  garrisons  and  left 
in  Bactria  (northern  Afghanistan)  a  large  part  of  his 
armies.  His  successor  in  those  parts,  Seleukos  Nicator, 
formed  an  alliance  with  Chandra  Gupta  who  had  firmly 
established  himself  along  the  Ganges.  Seleukos  finally 
sold  to  him  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Greeks  and 


24  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

stationed  at  his  court  the  famous  Megasthenes  who  there 
gathered  material  for  his  "Indika,"  the  best  description 
of  India  that  reached  Europe  until  200  years  ago.  His 
picture  of  Indian  society  is  very  graphic.  The  absence 
of  slavery,  the  chastity  of  their  women,  the  valor  of 
their  men,  the  rarity  of  theft  and  lying,  are  noted.  Peace 
prevailed,  the  Code  of  Manu  was  enforced,  manufactures 
and  agriculture  flourished  and  the  village  system,  re- 
minding Magasthenes  of  the  Greek  republic,  was  well 
developed. 

Later  inroads  from  Bactria  were  unimportant  and  ex- 
tended over  only  a  part  of  India.  The  Bactrians 
founded  no  kingdoms  and  the  only  traces  left  by  these 
Greek  add  Bactrian  invaders  are  the  science  of  astron- 
omy, some  coins  and  exquisite  Greek  sculptures. 

The  Scythians^  who  were  shepherds  and  herdsmen 
and  whose  one  talent  was  for  war,  exercised  a  larger  influ- 
ence on  the  land.  Coming  from  central  Asia,  they  soon 
spread  over  northern  India.  The  coins  of  various  kings 
and  dynasties  suggest  their  power,  while  the  influence 
of  King  Kanishka  gave  to  northern  Asia  its  peculiar 
form  of  Buddhism.  A  large  proportion  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  northwestern  provinces  to-day  is  said  to  be 
of  Scythian  origin  and  they  thus  form  wath  the  aborig- 
ines and  Aryans  the  three  races  making  up  the  Indian 
people.  Two  of  the  best  systems  of  Indian  chronology 
derive  their  era  from  native  kings  who  fought  success- 
fully against  tbc  Scythians.  One  is  the  Samvat,  corre- 
sponding to  57  B.  C;  the  other  is  the  Saka,  "Scythian," 
corresponding  to  78  A.  D.  These  struggles  lasted  for 
centuries  before  the  Scythian  was  subdued.  While  the 
statement  that  Buddha  was  a  Scythian  is  untrustworthy, 
it  is  certain  that  the  coming  of  these  people  to  India  has 
exerted  on  his  faith  a  deeper  influence  than  any  event 
since  his  death. 

5.  The  Brah7nanic  or  Modern  Hmdu  Period,  ^OO-i^oo 
A.  D.  This  period  has  to  do  almost  entirely  with  the 
development  of  religion.  While  Buddhism  was  not 
exiled  until  900  A.  D.,  the  reign  of  Vikramaditya  in  the 
sixth  century  has  been  termed  the  Renaissance  of  Hin- 


India's  Past.  25 

duism.  Buddhism  had  proven  the  first  strong  bond  of 
union  between  the  aboriginal,  Aryan  and  Scythian  ele- 
ments in  Indian  society.  The  Brahmans  realized  the 
value  of  such  a  bond  and  caused  modern  Hinduism  to 
take  its  place  as  a  unifying  power.  This  they  did  by 
adopting  from  Buddhism  its  images,  temples,  festivals, 
pilgrimages,  and  above  all  substituting  for  the  Buddhist 
Triad  the  worship  of  Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva.  Its 
triumph  over  a  decaying  Buddhism  is  due  largely  to  the 
fact  that  "Hinduism  is  a  social  league  and  a  religious 
alliance.  As  a  social  league,  it  rests  upon  caste,  and 
has  its  roots  deep  down  in  the  race  elements  of  the 
Indian  people.  As  a  religious  alliance,  it  represents  the 
union  of  the  Vedic  faith  of  the  Brahmans  with  Buddhism 
on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  earlier  rites  of  the  non- 
Aryan  peoples  on  the  other." 

The  first  really  great  apostle  of  modern  Hinduism 
was  Sankara  A  chary  a,  who,  in  the  ninth  century,  wan- 
dered as  a  preacher  over  India,  moulded  Brahman  phil- 
osophy into  its  final  form  and  popularized  it  into  a  na- 
tional religion.  Dying  at  thirty-two,  he  had  so  im- 
pressed Indian  thought  that  every  subsequent  Hindu 
sect  has  started  with  a  personal  God. 

It  was  this  period  which  produced  one  of  India's  great 
astronomers  who  explained  the  true  cause  of  eclipses  and 
very  closely  estimated  the  earth's  circumference.  Mod- 
ern Europeans  became  acquainted  with  algebra,  not 
from  the  Greeks,  but  from  the  Hindus  through  the 
Arabs.  So,  too,  our  decimal  system  of  notation  and 
so-called  Arabic  numerals  came  to  the  West  from  India 
during  these  centuries. 

6.  The  Muhammadan  Period,  1001-1761  A.  D, 
These  years,  filled  wdth  wars,  invasions  and  fanaticism, 
extended  from  the  coming  of  the  early  Muhammadan 
conquerors  to  the  end  of  the  Mughal  Dynasty. 

(i)  The  Early  Co7iqiierors,  647  (^?)-iS26  A.  D.  Be- 
ginning with  Arab  forays  in  647  (?),  Muhammadan 
power  began  to  powerfully  assert  itself  under  the  youth- 
ful Mahmud  of  Ghazni  (modern  Afghanistan  the  capital 
of  which  was  Ghazni).     This  "Idol  smasher,"  as  he 


26  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 

called  himself,  won  northwestern  India  after  a  25  years' 
struggle.  Other  warriors,  including  the  famous  Tamer- 
lane, fought  in  various  parts  of  India.  Their  aim  was 
to  destroy  temples  and  convert  to  Islam  the  inhabi- 
tants. They  brought  with  them  a  knowledge  of  other 
lands,  cultivated  history  and  incidentally  bore  back  to 
Europe  some  elements  of  Indian  culture.  They  were 
surprised  to  find  in  India  a  race  whose  valor  was  greater 
than  they  had  found  in  Africa  and  western  Asia. 

(2)  T/ie  Mughal  Efnpire,  1^26-1761  A.  D.  Tamer- 
lane had  proclaimed  himself  Tartar  Emperor  in  1397, 
but  the  title  lapsed  until  his  descendant,  Babar,  became 
the  first  Great  Mughal  in  1526.  His  grandson,  Akbar, 
was,  perhaps,  India's  greatest  sovereign  and  holds  the 
high  place  in  her  history  that  his  contemporary,  Queen 
Elizabeth,  does  in  English  annals.  His  reign  and  those 
of  three  of  his  successors  ''were  splendid,  and  their 
architectural  remains  evince  an  artistic  culture  hardly 
surpassed  in  any  age  or  country.''  Uprisings  among 
the  Sikhs  and  Marathas  and  the  invasions  from  central 
Asia  and  Persia  of  Nadir  Shah  and  others  weakened 
the  Empire  until  1761  when  the  Mughals  became  mere 
puppets  on  the  throne  and  so  continued  until  in  1857 
the  last  of  the  line  was  banished  to  Burma. 

The  Mughals,  because  lax  Muhammadans,  had  been 
tolerant  in  religion.  They  had  imparted  broad  ideas, 
introduced  organization  and  remodeled  the  revenue  sys- 
tem, making  it  much  as  it  is  to-day.  ''Six  of  the  rulers 
were  among  the  most  gifted  of  any  land  who  ever  held  a 
scepter." 

7.  The  Mar  at  ha  Period,  i6so-i8i8  A.  D.  This  low 
caste  Hindu  confederation,  found  in  central  India, 
ardently  hated  the  Muhammadans  and  contributed 
largely  to  the  overthrow  of  the  Mughals.  The  Marathas 
were  the  principal  power  which  the  Europeans  found 
when  they  appeared  upon  the  scene.  Their  lack  of  civ- 
ilization stood  in  the  way  of  progress,  and  various  evils, 
such  as  thuggee,  came  into  existence  during  this 
period.  Only  after  three  great  wars  were  the  British 
able  to  overcome  them  in  181 8. 


India's  Past.  2? 

8.  Period  of  European  Contact  and  Supremacy, 
i^oo-i8gs  A.  D.  For  convenience  Britain's  connection 
will  be  discussed  by  itself. 

(i)  European  Contact  with  India,  I4g8-i'joo.  India 
was  first  touched  from  the  south  when  da  Gama  landed 
his  Portuguese  adventurers  at  CaHcut  in  149S.  While 
the  Portuguese  enjoyed  for  a  century  the  monopoly  of 
oriental  trade,  their  governors,  with  the  exception  of 
Albuquerque,  were  superstitious  and  cruel  beyond 
belief.  They  "looked  on  every  pagan  as  an  enemy  of 
Portugal  and  of  Jesus  Christ."  Some  of  the  missiona- 
ries, however,  notably  Xavier,  were  marked  exceptions 
to  the  rule.  At  present  Portugal  possesses  only  iioo 
square  mile  of  Indian  territory  with  a  population  of  less 
than  half  a  million. 

The  Dtitch  were  the  first  to  break  through  the  Portu- 
guese monopoly.  Their  East  India  Company  was 
founded  in  1602  and  the  Dutch  were  soon  masters  of  the 
eastern  seas.  Their  first  Indian  factory  was  estab- 
lished in  1652.  Determined  to  maintain  a  monopoly  in 
spices,  they  treated  rivals  with  the  utmost  cruelty,  but 
finally  surrendered  their  supremacy  to  Clive  in  I75^' 
At  present  they  have  no  territory  in  India. 

The  Danes  possessed  little  power  in  Hindustan,  but 
their  settlements,  established  in  1616,  are  immortal  in 
missionary  annals.  Tranquebar  w^as  Ziegenbalg's  first 
field  and  the  surrounding  territory  has  been  the  most 
thoroughly  evangelized  district  in  India.  Serampore 
was  the  asylum  and  afterward  the  light  tower  of  Carey 
and  his  associates.  Both  settlements  now  belong  to 
England. 

The  French  began  to  gain  power  in  India  in  1668  and 
for  a  century  thereafter  made  heroic  efforts  to  found  an 
Indian  Empire.  One  of  their  officers,  Dupleix,  was  un- 
surpassed as  an  oriental  diplomatist  and  was  successful 
at  times  against  their  great  rivals  the  English.  Clive,  how- 
ever, learning  from  him  the  secret  of  arraying  native 
kingdoms  against  each  other,  succeeded  by  it  in  wrest- 
ing India  from  the  power  of  France  and  gave  it  to 


28  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

England.  French  power  was  crushed  out  in  1760-61, 
and  to-day  only  178  square  miles  of  Indian  territory 
belong  to  France  with  a  population  of  little  over  quar- 
ter of  a  million. 

(2)  British  Co7iflict  and  Supremacy,  1600- i8g^  A.  D. 
The  first  modern  Englishman  to  reach  India  became 
the  rector  of  a  Jesuit  College  near  Bombay  in  1579. 
The  East  India  Company,  which  was  to  win  India  for 
England,  received  its  original  charter  from  Elizabeth 
on  the  last  day  of  the  year  1600.  It  owes  its  origin  to 
the  fact  that  the  Dutch  raised  the  price  of  pepper  against 
the  English  from  3s.  to  6s.  per  pound.  Its  factories 
were  soon  found  in  various  parts  of  India,  and  in  1689 
the  Company  determined  upon  territorial  conquest. 
From  that  time  until  1833  it  was  a  military  and  commer- 
cial power  supported  by  English  arms. 

Clive's  victory  at  Plassey  (1757),  when  the  foundation 
of  British  supremacy  was  laid;  his  subjugation  of  the 
French,  already  alluded  to,  thus  securing  southern  In- 
dia as  northern  India  had  been  gained  at  Plassey; 
Warren  Hasting's  organization  of  the  empire  which 
Clive  had  founded;  Lord  Mornington's  emphasis  of 
England's  paramount  power  in  India;  the  overthrow  of 
the  Marathas;  Lord  Amherst's  expedition  against 
Burma;  the  philanthropic  and  financial  reforms  of  Lord 
Bentinck;  Dalhousie's  administration,  as  significant 
almost  as  that  of  Lord  Clive;  the  terrible  Sepoy  Mutiny 
of  1857;  the  subsequent  transfer  to  the  Crown  of  the 
East  India  Company's  powers;  the  proclamation  on  the 
first  day  of  1877  of  Victoria  as  Empress  of  India;  the  ap- 
palling sufferings  of  the  famine  years  of  1876-78;  the 
addition  of  Burma  to  the  Empire: — these  are  some  of 
the  important  features  of  the  English  rule  in  India. 

Notwithstanding  the  weaknesses  and  sins  of  British 
supremacy,  India  owes  to  Britain  most  of  its  present 
growth  and  prosperity.  She  has  become  unified  as 
never  before;  invasions  and  internal  strife  have  given 
place  to  peace;  crime  has  been  greatly  diminished; 
some  evil  and  cruel  customs  have  been  done  away  with; 
intercommunication  has  been  made  easy;  sanitary  meas- 


Indians  Past.  29 

ures  have  been  adopted;  agriculture,  mining  and  the 
industries  of  civihzed  lands  have  been  developed;  com- 
merce is  contributing  her  millions  to  the  nation;  edu- 
cation and  the  growth  of  public  opinion  are  advancing 
with  rapid  strides ;  freedom  of  religious  belief  is  pledged 
to  all :  in  short,  England  has  been  Hindustan's  material 
saviour. 

India'5  Place  in  the  World's  History... 

In  Hegel's  phrase,  India  is  the  Land  of  Desire  to  the 
world.  All  great  nations  have,  at  some  time,  sought 
her  material  or  intellectual  treasures.  Americans 
should  remember  that  Columbus  was  seeking  her  when 
he  discovered  this  continent. 

India  can  teach  us  our  own  tongue  in 
its  primitive  form  better  than  any  other  na- 
tion. In  her  history  we  can  trace  the  growth  of 
thought.  Her  soft  climate  and  gigantic  banyans  have 
given  birth  to  meditation  and  philosophy.  Imagina- 
tion has  there  embodied  itself  in  sacred  books  and  a  lit- 
erature of  much  value  to  mankind.  Europe  was  taught 
science  by  India  in  the  early  centuries.  She  has  given 
Asia  her  most  widely  accepted  religion,  and  herself  rep- 
resents to  the  world  the  religious  life,  imperfect  though 
it  is.  Through  desire  of  her,  important  discoveries  have 
been  made,  navies  set  in  motion,  nations  enriched. 

Yet  India,  while  thus  benefitting  the  world,  has  been 
repeatedly  vanquished  and  is  in  deep  need.  Her  past 
shows  her  future  possibilities  and  suggests  that  the 
present  is  the  opportune  time  for  stretching  out  hands 
of  loving  sympathy  and  practical  helpfulness.  Mr. 
Kidd  urges,  from  the  standpoint  of  philanthropic  altru- 
ism, the  administration  of  the  affairs  of  India  from  the 
temperate  zone.  How  much  more  ought  the  love  of 
Christ  to  constrain  the  American  Christian  to  give  him- 
self to  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  Hindu! 


^0  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Encyclopaedias:    Same  as  in  Chapter  I. 

Church  Missionary  Atlas,  Pt.  II.,  India,  (1887),  Pp.  84-87. 

Dutt:    Epochs  of  Indian  History,  Ancient  India,  (1893). 

Feudge:    India,  (1881),  Chs.  X.-XXV. 

Gracey:    India,  (1884),  Pp.  20-41. 

Eittell:    Mankind  in  Ancient  Times,  (1893),  Vol.  II.,  Ch.  XV., 

Pp.  261-263. 
Hurst:    Indika,   (1891),  Chs.  IV.,  V.,  VI.,  LXXXVI. 
Keene:    History  of  India,  (1893),  Vol.  I.,  Ch.  I. 
3Iimer:    India:     What  can  It  teach  Us?    (1883),  Lect.  I. 
Ragozin:    Vedic  India,  (1895),  Ch.  II. 

Rees:    Epochs  of  Indian  History — The  Muhammadans,  (1894). 
Samuelson:    India,  Past  and  Present,  (1890),  Chs.  I.,  II.,  III. 
morrow:    India,  Pt.  I.  (1883),  Pp.  21-28. 
Trotter:    History  of  India,   (1874),  Bks.   I  and  II.  especially 

good. 
Wheeler:    History  of  India,    (1867-1881),   Vol.    II.    Ch.    XIV. 

Indian  History  (Primer),  (1890). 


CHAPTER   III. 

THE    COMMON    LIFE. 

"This  life  of  ours  is  a  wild  Acadian  harp  of  many  a  joyous 

strain, 
But  under  them  all  there  runs  a  loud  perpetual  wail,  as  of  souls 
in  pain."         — H.  W.  Longfellow,  "The  Golden  Legend." 

So  many  sided  a  thing-  is  the  life  of  any  land  that  it  is 
useless  to  attempt  its  minute  description.  Some  of  the 
features  common  to  the  life  of  the  majority  of  the 
Hindus  will  be  given,  but  the  caution  that  even  these  are 
not  wholly  uniform  in  all  sections  must  be  borne  in 
mind.  Special  accounts  of  the  wild  customs  of  the  ab- 
original tribes,  and  of  the  w^ealthy  and  cultured  classes 
must  be  looked  for  elsewhere. 

Habitations  and  their  Furnishings... 

The  homes  of  the  poor  are  usually  about  twelve  feet 
square  and  of  one  story.  They  are  constructed  uport 
a  raised  floor  of  earth  with  walls  of  matting,  wattles  or 
moistened  earth.  The  roof  is  of  reeds,  grass  or  palmyra 
leaves  fastened  to  rafters  of  bamboo  or  jungle  wood. 
Windows  may  be  entirely  lacking  or  else  are  very 
small  and  never  glazed.  The  low,  narrow  door  gives 
light  to  the  household.  The  roof,  often  pyramidal,  pro- 
jecting beyond  the  walls,  constitutes  a  piazza  or,  to  use 
the  Hindu  term,  a  varanda.  Occasionally  the  exterior 
of  the  front  wall  of  the  house  is  decorated  with  alternate 
vertical  stripes,  about  a  foot  wide,  of  red  and  white 
color.  More  commonly  "the  front  of  the  house  is  cov- 
ered with  cakes  of  cow  manure,  stuck  there  for  drying  in 
the  sun  so  as  to  become  fit  for  fuel."    The  monetary 


33  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Tridents 

outlay  for  such  a  house,  not  counting  the  labor  bestowed 
upon  it  by  the  family,  varies  from  two  to  eighteen 
dollars. 

"WiQ  furnishings ,  are  very  simple  and  inexpensive. 
The  floor  is  of  hardened  earth  which  needs  no  care 
beyond  the  regular  purifying  with  a  solution  of  cow 
dung  and  water.  Three  or  four  low  fireplaces  without 
pipe  or  chimney  allow  of  cooking  in  a  sedentary  pos- 
ture. Near  them,  or  in  the  angles  of  the  wall,  are  pots 
of  all  sizes  containing  the  household  stores.  Sus- 
pended by  ropes  from  the  rafters  are  vessels  holding 
clarified  butter,  sugar  and  other  articles  likely  to  fall  a 
prey  to  rats  and  ants.  Cooking  utensils  are  there  also. 
A  lamp,  some  matting,  a  pestle  and  stone 
mortar,  a  hand  mill,  a  granite  slab  for  grinding, 
possibly  a  rude  bedstead,  and  some  spinning  wheels, 
complete  the  furnishings.  The  interior  of  these  one, 
or  perhaps  two,  roomed  houses  is  abundantly  supplied 
with  confined  air  and  smoke,  and  is  redolent  with  the 
odor  of  cow  dung  and  stale  curry  materials. 


Dre55. 


This  varies  largely.  The  poor  man^s  garments  are 
**in  two  pieces  called  'upper'  and  'lower'  cloths.  The 
lower  cloth  is  about  three  yards  long,  is  tied  about  the 
waist  and  falls  over  the  knees.  The  upper  cloth  is 
about  the  same  length  and  is  thrown  loosely  across  the 
shoulders  and  drawn  around  the  waist."  Many  do  not 
commonly  wear  the  upper  cloth.  Coats  are  in  some 
cases  worn  instead  of  the  'upper  cloth,'  but  the  turban 
made  of  ten  yards  of  cloth  wound  about  the  head  is  too 
valuable  to  give  way  to  the  European  hat. 

Wonian^s  dress  requires  no  sewing,  nor  even  a  but- 
ton, hook  or  pin  to  keep  it  in  place.  It  consists  of  some 
six  to  nine  yards  of  cloth,  one  end  of  which  is  "wrapped 
around  the  waist,  gathered  into  folds  in  front  and  se- 
cured bv  tucking  under.  When  required,  this  end  may 
be  readily  loosed  and  thrown  over  the  head  as  a  cover- 
ing."    A  short  sleeved,  tightly  fitting  jacket  reaching 


The  Common  Life.  33 

half  way  to  the  waist  is  coming  to  be  commonly  worn 
underneath  the  upper  cloth.  The  skin  of  the  face,  arms 
and  feet  is  tinged  with  the  yellow  of  saffron  water,  while 
the  finger  tips  and  nails  are  dyed  red  with  henna  leaves. 
The  women  also  paint  the  outer  edge  of  the  eyelids 
with  a  solution  of  oil  and  lamp  black. 

Both  sexes  are  fond  of  jewelry,  though  the  woman 
makes  the  most  lavish  use  of  it.  Her  toes,  ankles,  fin- 
gers, wrists,  arms,  neck,  nose,  ears  and  hair  are  loaded 
down  with  these  *'joys"  in  proportion  to  her  wealth  and 
the  importance  of  the  occasion.  The  widow  who  is  a 
"jewelless  woman"  is  an  exception  to  this  general  rule. 
Neither  sex  ever  wear  stockings  and  very  rarely  san- 
dals or  slippers,  though  men  may  don  them  on  state 
occasion. 

The  dress  of  poor  children  is  conspicuous  by  its  ab- 
sence, it  not  iDcing  needed,  as  the  Hindu  proverb  says, 
''Children  and  the  legs  of  a  stool  do  not  feel  cold." 
Until  about  eight  years  of  age  boys  and  girls  are  usually 
without  anything  save  "a  necklace,  a  charm  and  a  string 
about  the  waist  with  a  few  bells  attached." 

The  materials  are  mainly  cottons  of  various  sorts. 
'The  black  colors  of  Europe  are  seldom  seen,  but  indigo 
blue  is  common.  Otherwise  white  set  off  by  gay  mar- 
gins, *  *  *  *  jg  \^^  pevailing  color. 
As  a  whole  the  national  dress  is  picturesque,  and  a  holi- 
day crowd  has  the  appearance  of  a  flower  garden." 

Food... 

Vegetables,  fruit,  rice  and  millet  are  the  main  food 
stuffs.  Rice  is  eaten  where  plentiful  and  when  it  can 
be  afforded.  Meats  are  seldom  eaten  and  salt  fish  is 
sparingly  partaken  of.  The  tastelessness  of  food  is 
avoided  by  the  free  use  of  curry  and  other  relishes. 

A  light  lunch  is  taken  in  the  morning  and  the  prin- 
cipal meals  are  at  about  noon  and  six  o'clock.  The 
noon  meal  is  carried  from  the  house  to  the  field  for  the 
great  majority  who  are  at  work  there. 

Tables  are  not  a  necessity,  the  bare  earthen  floor 
supplying  their  place.     Dried  leaves,  sewn  into  the  form 


34  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

of  a  rude  bowl  and  used  but  once,  serve  as  plates. 
Knives,  forks  and  spoons  are  an  abomination  to  the 
ordinary  Hindu,  the  right  hand  being  a  far  better  substi- 
tute. Water,  coflfee  in  many  cases,  and  toddy  and  arrack 
among  the  lower  castes  are  the  common  drinks.  The 
cup  containing  them  is  not  allowed  to  touch  the  lips, 
but  the  contents  are  poured  down  into  the  mouth.  The 
women  do  not  eat  with  the  male  members  of  the  family, 
but  wait  until  their  lords  are  through. 

Tobacco  is  almost  universally  *'drunk"  by  the  men  of 
India.  The  curious  waterpipe  is  employed,  and  the  to- 
bacco is  damp  from  the  molasses  with  which  it  is  mixed, 
so  that  burning  charcoal  needs  to  be  put  into  the  bowl 
with  the  tobacco. 

The  Family... 

As  marriage  is  considered  a  necessary  religious  cere- 
mony the  rite  is  universal  among  those  capable  of  it. 
,  The  ceremonies  of  the  two  marriages,  one  occurring  in 
childhood  and  the  other  when  the  parties  are  old  enough 
to  live  together,  are  elaborate  and  costly  and  are  consid- 
ered the  greatest  of  religious  and  social  events.  The 
Hindu  wedding,  like  the  Chinese  funeral,  often  impov- 
erishes a  family  for  years  or  even  for  generations. 

The  ideal  relation  delween  husband  and  wife  as  de- 
scribed in  the  Vedas  no  longer  exists;  instead,  later 
Shasters  thus  state  the  wife's  duty:  ''A  woman  has  no 
other  god  on  earth  but  her  husband.  -'^  ^  ^ 
When  in  the  presence  of  her  husband  a  woman 
must  not  look  on  the  one  side  and  on  the  other.  She 
must  keep  her  eyes  on  her  master  to  be  ready  to  receive 
his  commands.  When  he  speaks,  she  must  be  quiet 
and  listen  to  nothing  besides.  Let  her  words,  her  ac- 
tions and  her  deportment  give  open  assurance  that  she 
regards  her  husband  as  her  god.  Then  shall  she  be 
honored  of  all  men,  and  be  praised  as  a  virtuous  and 
discreet  woman." 

The  wives  of  the  poor,  who  constitute  the  bulk  of 
Hindu  womanhood,  are  freed  from  the  evils  of  the  oft- 
described  zanana  life,  and  are  also  not  subjected  to  the 


The  Common  Life.  35 

heart  burnings  due  to  polygamy,  since  poverty  prevents 
tlie  husband  from  having  more  than  one  wife. 

Child  marriage,  bringing  the  burdens  of  a  family  upon 
mere  children,  is,  however,  common  to  rich  and  poor 
alike.  Widowhood,  with  its  thousand  woes  which  rest 
like  a  pall  over  the  lives  of  millions  of  the  middle  and 
higher  classes,  is  not  so  great  a  burden  to  the  poor,  as 
widows  in  such  families  are  allowed  to  re-marry. 

T/ie  children  of  poor  homes  are  not  equally  favored. 
Owing  to  the  strict  measures  adopted  by  the  Govern- 
ment, female  infanticide  is  not  very  common;  yet  a  girl 
is  necessarily  a  burden  during  childhood,  and  as  soon 
as  useful  she  marries  and  leaves  home.  Boys  are  wel- 
come, and  are  their  parents  greatest  delight.  With 
them  in  the  household  parents  need  not  fear  about  supr 
port  in  old  age,  and  at  death  there  is  some  one  to  light 
the  funeral  pyre  and  to  minister  to  the  many  needs  of 
their  departed  spirits.  Rowe  says  of  boys  and  girls, 
*'Hindu  children  are  timid,  and,  as  a  rule,  respectful  to  their 
elders,  obedient  to  their  parents,  and  well  behaved  in 
public.  They  are  less  active  and  boisterous  than  Euro- 
pean children.  The  boys  do  not  engage  so  freely  in 
outdoor  sports,  and  among  the  girls  such  recreations 
are  almost  unknown."  Children  are  made  to  bear  as 
many  of  the  family  burdens  as  possible  and  are  usually 
treated  with  affection  or  at  least  v^^ith  consideration. 

What  we  know  as  the  home  life  is  lacking  among  the 
masses  of  India.  The  house  is  a  shelter  from  the 
weather  and  a  place  for  eating  and  sleeping.  A  species 
of  reverence  toward  the  husband,  and  fear  of  parents  on 
the  children's  part  take  the  place  of  Christian  family  af- 
fection and  mutual  helpfulness.  Social  intercourse  be- 
tween husband,  wife  and  children  is  well  nigh  imknown, 
outside  of  the  homes  of  Christian  converts. 

Death  comes  to  such  families  as  a  step  into  another 
and  perhaps  a  lower  form  of  existence.  It  oc- 
casions little  concern  on  the  part  of  survivors  and  the 
body  is  burned,  or  else  buried  in  a  shallow  grave  where 
it  often  becomes  the  prey  of  dogs  and  jackals.  Those 
who  live  near  the  Ganges  burn  their  dead  on  its  banks 


36  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 

or  allow  their  sick  to  die  on  the  strand,  either  as  the 
result  of  exposure  or  because  death  is  hasteaed  by  stuff- 
ing the  mouth  with  mud.  In  such  cases  the  body  may 
be  left  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  river. 

Occupations... 

The  employments  of  the  people,  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1891  are  as  follows: — Agriculture,  59.79  per  cent; 
earth  work  and  general  labor,  8,87  per  cent;  food,  drink 
and  stimulants,  5.07  per  cent;  textile  fabrics  and  dress, 
4.39  per  cent;  personal  and  domestic  service,  3.91  per 
cent;  learned  and  artistic  professions,  1.97  per  cent;  ad- 
ministration, 1.95  per  cent;  independent  means,  1.66 
per  cent;  commerce,  1.63  per  cent;  wood,  cane  and 
matting,  1.50  per  cent;  transportation  and  storage,  1.38 
per  cent;  metals  and  precious  stones,  1.33  per  cent;  care 
of  cattle,  1.27  per  cent;  light,  fuel,  etc.,  1.23  per  cent; 
leather,  hides,  etc.,  1.14  per  cent;  miscellaneous,  2.91 
per  cent. 

Farming,  the  leading  occupation,  is  done  with  decid- 
edly patriarchal  implements.  As  deep  culture  is  impos- 
sible with  rude  stick  plows  and  as  subsequent  care  is 
restricted  largely  to  weeding  and  watering,  slender  re- 
sults come  to  the  hard  working  cultivator.  The  use 
of  manure  for  fuel  prevents  the  farmer  in  districts  re- 
mote from  fertilizing  rivers  from  keeping  his  land  in  the 
best  condition.  Like  the  Chinamen,  however,  he  has 
learned  the  advantages  arising  from  cultivating  in  alter- 
nate rows  crops  of  different  sorts,  such  as  millet,  tall 
pulse,  trailing  pulse  and  cucumbers.  In  some  sparsely 
settled  districts  lands  are  wastefully  cleared,  exhausted 
in  a  few  years,  and  then  abandoned. 

Of  the  various  handicrafts,  it  may  be  said  that  the  vil- 
lage system  militates  against  the  congestion  of  indus- 
tries in  great  manufacturing  centres.  This  naturally  re- 
sults in  the  use  of  simple  tools  and  machines,  with  lit- 
tle employment  of  power.  In  manufactures  requiring 
taste,  patience,  and  manual  dexterity,  the  Hindus  have, 
until  the  present  century,  stood  in  the  foremost  rank; 
but  the  decay  of  the  establishments  of  native  princes — 


The  Common  Life,  37 

their  chief  customers — together  with  India's  connection 
with  Great  Britain,  whose  existence  depends  so  much 
upon  its  export  trade,  has  driven  many  of  her  skilled 
artisans  to  the  plough  and  crushed  out  a  number  of 
minor  handicrafts. 

Woiiian''s  work  is  more  varied  than  one  would  sup- 
pose. Besides  the  care  of  the  household  which  often  in- 
cludes spinning,  she  helps  about  the  farm,  assists  in 
business  often  and  contributes  her  labor  to  road  making 
and  other  public  works. 

Wages  are  low  among  all  classes.  Bishop  Thoburn 
places  the  average  earnings  for  a  man  and  his  family 
at  five  cents  a  day.  Other  observers  claim  that  Sir  R. 
Temple  is  more  correct  in  stating  that  laborers  of  the 
better  class  receive  four  annas  (six  pence)  a  day,  while 
those  of  the  poorer  class  get  half  that  sum.  It  should  be 
remembered,  however,  that  food  grains  can  be  bought  at 
two  pounds  for  a  penny,  which  supplies  a  fair  susten- 
ance for  a  day,  while  clothing  is  scanty  and  cheap,  fuel 
costs  nothing  and  house  rent  is  scarcely  known. 

In  spite  of  these  considerations  poverty  is  almost  uni- 
versal and  sometimes  extreme.  Millions  "never  sleep 
under  any  other  covering  than  the  open  sky,"  and  forty 
millions,  according  to  Sir  W.  Hunter,  go  through  life 
with  too  little  food,  many  of  them  never  knowing  what  it 
is  to  have  their  hunger  satisfied. 

Amusements... 

The  Hindu  cannot  afiford  to  amuse  himself  as  freely 
as  Americans  do.  Children  often  play  games  common 
here,  such  as  "hide-and-seek,"  "puss-in-the-corner," 
"blind-man's-bufif,"  etc.  In  other  games  they  act  the  part 
of  dangerous  banditti,  or  shrewd  merchants.  Adults 
seem  to  enjoy  sitting  on  a  door  step  or  lying  on  a  mat 
•more  than  chess,  which  as  a  reflection  of  "the  game  of 
war"  is  often  played.  Wrestling,  acrobatic  perform- 
ances, jugglery,  nautches,  songs  and  stories  are  much 
enjoyed.  In  general,  they  like  whatever  is  iamasJia, — 
show,  display  or  pomp — just  as  the  Chinaman  delights 
\nje  naOf  hot  racket,  or  bustle. 


38  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

rieans  of  Intercommunication... 

This  item  concerns  but  little  the  masses  with  whom 
we  have  to  do,  as  they  seldom  travel  except  on  their  pil- 
grimages, and  write  few  letters.  According  to  the  cur- 
rent issue  of  the  "Statesman's  Year  Book,"  the  public  au- 
thorities maintain  153,507  miles  of  roads  throughout 
the  country,  33,388  miles  of  which  are  macadamized. 
Some  18,500  miles  of  railway  connect  the  principal  cities 
while  24,124  postoffices  and  boxes  carry  written  intelli- 
gence to  the  people.  There  were  also  41,030  miles  of 
government  telegraph  lines  over  which  3,981,411  mes- 
sages were  sent  in  1893. 

If  the  Hindu  wishes  a  letter  written,  the  village  clerk- 
does  it  for  him.  If  disposed  to  travel  otherwise  than 
on  foot,  he  may  choose  the  palanquin  with  its  many 
bearers,  tonjon  or  chair  on  poles — though  that  is  used 
for  short  distances — a  bullock  bandy  or  covered  cart; 
or  he  may  travel  by  boat  the  slowness  of  which,  allow- 
ing him  ample  time  to  gaze  dreamily  into  the  water,  has 
a  special  charm.  If  located  near  the  railway,  he  fnay 
venture  aboard  the  train  with  its  pushing  crowds  and 
opportunity  to  starve.  Elephants  and  camels  are  not 
for  such  as  he,  even  if  he  were  inclined  to  employ  themi. 

Caste... 

This  is  the  Hindu's  environment  and  the  greatest 
obstacle  encountered  by  the  Christian  missionary.  It 
is  popularly  considered  as  a  religious  institution  dating 
from  the  Vedic  period  and  buttressed  by  the  Laws  of 
Manu,  attributed  variously  to  the  thirteenth  century  B. 
C.  down  to  as  late  as  the  second  century  A.  D.  Modern 
writers  like  Muir,  Miiller  and  Cornish,  argue  that 
instead  of  having  this  divine  origin,  caste  is  due  to  differ- 
ences in  race,  employment  and  location. 

The  original  system  recognized  but  four  castes,  the 
priests,  warriors,  and  agriculturists,  who  were  the  "twice 
born,"  and  the  "once  born"  Sudras  who  were  menials, 
artisans,  etc.  At  present  the  original  castes  do  not  exist  in 
their  purity,  the  Brahmans  and  Sudras  remaining  most 


!rhe  Common  Life.  39 

distinct.  Caste  subdivisions  are  extremely  numerous 
and  complicated.  Hunter  states  the  number  as  at  least 
tliree  thousand,  though  according  to  the  Madras  census 
returns  for  1881  there  were  19,044  caste  names.  The 
members  of  the  Sudra  sub-castes  are  most  numerous 
and  constitute  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  population. 

CasU  regulations  are  very  rigid,  and  cover  minute 
particulars  of  daily  life.  They  are  a  constant  source  of 
annoyance  to  the  foreigner,  especially  in  the  matter  of 
division  of  labor,  but  their  burdensomeness  is  not  so 
much  objected  to  by  the  natives  themselves.  Should 
these  regulations  be  disobeyed,  the  offending  individual 
is  not  allowed  to  enter  the  house  or  to  eat  with  those 
of  his  caste,  but  is  regarded  as  dead.  Caste  can  be  re- 
gained in  most  cases  by  prostrations,  drinking  a  mix- 
ture of  the  five  products  of  the  cow,  paying  a  fine  and 
furnishing  a  feast.  Christians,  who  necessarily  break 
caste  by  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  those  of 
other  castes,  suffer  much  from  their  families  and  caste- 
members,  but  the  Government  has  relieved  them  of 
some  annoyances,  such  as  being  forbidden  the  use  of 
the  village  well.  They  cannot,  however,  be  restored  to 
their  standing  in  the  caste. 

There  are  some  advantages  in  the  system.  Mission- 
aries have  noted  its  value  in  the  matter  of  securing  the 
economic  advantages  of  division  of  labor,  and  the  pro- 
tection coming  from  the  larger  caste  family.  It  pro> 
motes  to  some  extent  cleanliness  and  is  a  moral  re- 
straint in  certain  directions.  It  has  also  proven  its  value 
to  the  British  Government  from  a  political  and  police 
point  of  view.  It  has  kept  alive  a  learned  class  which 
might  otherwise  have  been  blotted  out  of  existence. 
To  the  higher  classes  it  has  been  a  temperance  element 
of  great  value  in  that  it  forbids  the  use  of  Uquor.  Caste 
has  made  the  Hindus  content  with  their  lot,  and  among 
those  who  contend  most  strenuously  for  it  are  the  low- 
est of  the  people. 

The  disadvantages  far  outweigh,  however,  these  caste 
benefits.  A  native  pandit,  Shiva  Nath  Sastri,  scores  the 
following  points  against  the  system.     It  has  produced 


40  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

division  and  discord;  it  has  made  manual  labor  con- 
temptible; it  has  checked  internal  and  external  com- 
merce; by  confining  marriage  within  narrow  circles,  it 
has  produced  physical  degeneracy;  it  has  fostered  an  in- 
jurious conservatism;  it  has  checked  the  development 
of  individuality  and  independence  of  character;  it  has 
encouraged  harmful  customs  such  as  early  marriages, 
heavy  wedding  fees,  etc. ;  it  has  prevented  tlie  growth  of 
national  worth  by  confining  to  a  limited  number  the  ben- 
efits of  culture;  by  imposing  on  the  people  the  most 
abject  spiritual  slavery,  it  has  prepared  the  country  for 
foreign  slavery.  Other  points  will  be  named  m  the  fol- 
lowing chapter,  but  its  general  opposition  to  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine  of  universal  brotherhood  and  compassion 
are  too  manifest  to  be  enlarged  upon. 

The  Village  and  Its  System... 

TAe  village  is  the  home  of  the  masses,  as  widely  iso- 
lated dwellings  are  almost  unknown,  and  comparatively 
few  live  in  the  cities.  The  last  census  shows  that  about 
90  per  cent  of  the  population  dwell  in  villages  of  less 
than  two  thousand  inhabitants.  In  appearance  they  do 
not  greatly  vary.  Two  main  sections  are  noted;  one  in- 
habitated  by  the  higher  castes,  the  other  by  the  outcastes 
and  non-castes. 

The  houses  already  described,  with  a  few  of  adobe  sur- 
mounted by  tile  roofs  belonging  to  the  well  to  do,  are 
shaded  to  some  extent  by  palms,  banyans,  margosas  and 
other  trees.  In  the  absence  of  sanitary  regulations, 
dust,  filth,  and  stifling  odors  abound.  The  village  tank 
for  watering  cattle,  washing  clothes,  and  irrigating 
fields,  and  the  well  and  open  market  place  are  the  com- 
mon places  of  resort. 

The  village  system  has  won  the  admiration  of  West- 
ern writers.  It  is  a  miniature  republic  presided  over  by 
2ipotail  or  "head  inhabitant,"  aided  by  a  clerk  and  pan- 
chayety  or  "council  of  five,"  who  decide  cases  of  a  moral 
nature.  Other  functionaries  are  the  village  priest, 
school  master  and  watchman.  "Besides  these,  almost 
every  village  has  its  astrologer,  smith,  carpenter,  potter, 


!the  Common  Life.  41 

barber  and  bard,  all  of  whom  are  rewarded  out  of  the 
produce  of  the  village  lands."  Each  village  is  thus  self- 
sufficient  and  constitutes  a  microcosm  which  cares  little 
for  other  villages  and  the  central  Government. 

The  Government  of  India... 

The  Empire  is  composed  of  British  Provinces  com- 
prising about  62  per  cent  of  the  area  with  yy  per  cent  of 
the  population,  the  remainder  being  the  native  or  feud- 
atory states.  Sir  W.  Hunter  thus  describes  their  gov- 
ernment:— 

^^  The  Native  States.  The  Native  princes  govern  their 
States  with  the  help  and  under  the  advice  of  a  British 
Resident,  whom  the  Viceroy  stations  at  their  courts. 
Some  of  them  reign  almost  as  independent  sovereigns; 
others  have  less  power.  They  form  a  great  body  of 
feudatory  rulers,  possessed  of  revenues  and  armies  of 
their  own.  The  more  important  exercise  the  power  of 
life  and  death  over  their  subjects;  but  the  authority  of 
all  is  limited  by  treaties  by  which  they  acknowledge 
their  'subordinate  dependence'  to  the  British  Govern- 
ment. The  British  Government,  as  Suzerain  m  India, 
does  not  allow  its  feudatories  to  make  war  upon  each 
other,  or  to  form  alliances  with  foreign  states.  It  inter- 
feres when  any  Chief  misgoverns  his  people;  rebukes, 
and  if  needful  dethrones,  the  oppressor;  protects  the 
weak,  and  imposes  peace  upon  all. 

^^The  Twelve  British  P7' ovine es.  The  British  pos- 
sessions are  distributed  into  twelve  Provinces.  Each 
has  its  own  Governor  or  head;  but  all  are  controlled  by 
the  supreme  Government  of  India,  consisting  of  a  Gov- 
ernor-General in  Council.  The  Governor-General  also 
bears  the  title  of  Viceroy.  He  holds  his  court  and  gov- 
ernment at  Calcutta  in  the  cold  weather;  and  during 
summer  at  Simla,  in  the  Himalayas,  7,000  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.'  The  Viceroy  of  India  is  appointed 
by  the  Queen  of  England ;  so  also  are  the  Governors  of 
Madras  and  Bombay.  The  heads  of  the  other  Prov- 
inces are  chosen  for  their  merit  from  the  Anglo-Indian 
services,  almost  always  from  the  Civil  Service,  and  are 


4^  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 

nominated  by  the  Viceroy,  subject  in  the  case  of  the 
Lieutenant-Governorships  to  the  approval  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  State.  The  Queen  of  England  is  Empress  of 
India,  and  is  spoken  of  both  officially  and  commonly  in 
India  as  'the  Queen-Empress.' " 


SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Encyclopaedias:    Same  as  Chapter  I. 

Brown:    Races  of  Mankind,  Vol.  IV.,  Pp.  75-110. 

Coopooswamey:     Everyday  Life  in  South  India,  (1885). 

Cust:     Pictures  of  Indian  Life.  (1881),  Ch.  VI. 

Feudge:    India,  (1881),  Ch.  VIII. 

Hindu  Women,  (1883),  especially  Chs.    I.,    II. 

Hunter:  The  Indian  Empire,  (1886,  same  as  Vol.  VI.  of  Im- 
perial Gazetteer  of  India),  Chs.  XVIII.,  XIX.,  XX. 

Hurst:    Indika,  (1891),  Chs.  XII.,  XX.,  LX. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Apr.  1888,  Pp.  273-277.  Apr. 
1891,  Pp.  266-268.  Apr.  1894,  Pp.  267-270.  Apr.  1895,  Pp. 
276-279.     Apr.  1895,  Pp.  279,  280. 

MUller:  Chips  from  a  German  Work-Shop,  (1868-1875),  Vol. 
II.,  Ch.  XXVII. 

Murdoch:  Papers  on  Indian  Reform,  (1889),  Women  of  India 
and  What  Can  Be  Done  for  Them. 

Rctmabai:    The  High  Caste  Woman,  (1888). 

Rectus:  The  Earth  and  Its  Inhabitants,  (1884),  Vol.  III.,  Ch. 
XVIIL 

Rohbins:    Handbook  of  India,  (1883),  Chs.  II.,  IV.,  V. 

Rowe:  Every-day  Life  in  India,  (1881),  Chs.  II.,  IV.,  V.,  IX., 
X.,  XL,  XVI. 

Samuelson:    India  Past  and  Present,  (1890),  Ch.  IV. 

morrow:    India.  Pt.  I.,  Pp.  44-48;  Pt.  II.,  Pp.  3-7. 

Temple:    India  in  1880,  (1882),  Chs.  XV.,  XVI. 

Watson  and  Kaye:  The  People  of  India,  (1868-1870),  8  Vol- 
umes.    Photographs  with  descriptive  text. 

Wilkins:    Daily  Life  and  Work  in  India,  (1888),  Ch.  IV. 

World's  Parliament  of  Religions,  (1893),  Pp.  7^7-779- 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE    RELIGIOUS    LIFE    OF   THE    MASSES. 

**'^etigion  has  dominated  the  life  of  the  Indians  more  thor- 
ouglily  than  that  of  almost  any  other  nation." 

—.Prof.  M.   TV.  Duncker,  History  of  Antiquity,  Vol.  IV. 

Religion  constitutes  so  large  a  part  of  the  common  life 
of  the  Indian  people  that  it  has  been  reserved  for  a  spe- 
cial chapter.  As  our  interest  centers  in  the  masses 
rather  than  in  the  Brahmans  and  the  better  educated, 
Vedic  and  Philosophic  Hinduism  will  not  be  described, 
but  instead,  those  popular  beliefs  which  constitute  the 
faith  and  practice  of  ninety-nine  per  cent  of  the  nearly 
208,000,000  entered  as  Hindus  in  the  census  of  1891. 

India's  Religious  Statistics... 

Before  proceeding  to  summarize  the  popular  relig- 
ion, it  should  be  noted  that  other  faiths  than  Hinduism 
are  largely  represented  in  India.  According  to  the  last 
census,  the  adherents  of  these  various  religions  in  the 
entire  empire  numbered  as  follows : — 

Hindus,   207,731,727 

Muhammadans,    57,321,164 

Animistic,   9,280,467 

Buddhists,    7,131,361 

Christians,    « 2,284,380 

Sikhs,  1,907,833 

Jains,    1,416,638 

Parsis,  89,904 

Other  beliefs,  42,762 

Jews, 17,194 


44  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Of  the  Buddhists,  only  241,821  are  found  in  India 
proper,  nearly  all  of  them  being  in  Burma.  It  will  be 
noted  that  the  Empress  of  India  rules  over  upwards  of 
fifty-seven  millions  of  Muhammadans,  while  in  the 
whole  Ottoman  Empire,  the  Sultan  rules  over  but  a  lit- 
tle more  than  thirty-nine  millions,  about  two-thirds  as 
many  as  are  found  in  Victoria's  Indian  realm.  Under 
the  head  of  Christians  are  included  both  Catholics  and 
Protestants.   The  main  census  subdivisions  are  these: — 

Roman  Catholics, 1,315,263 

Protestants,  767,433 

Syrians,  Armenians  and  Greeks, 201,684 

The  denomination  having  the  largest  Protestant  en- 
rollment was  the  Church  of  England  with  302,430  mem- 
bers. 

Popular  Hinduism... 

J.  Murdoch,  LL.  D.,  a  prominent  Indian  writer, 
whose  admirable  treatise  on  the  subject  will  be  largely 
drawn  from  in  this  chapter,  thus  defines  the  phrase: 
^^ Popular  Hinduism  may,  in  general  terms,  be  defined 
as  the  religion  of  the  Ramayana,  Mahabharata,  the  Pu- 
ranas  and  the  Tantras.  About  ninety-nine  out  of  every 
hundred  accept  Hinduism  in  this  form.  It  is  almost  univer- 
sal among  the  women,  and  is  that  which  they  teach  their 
children."  He  also  defines  related  phrases  as  follows: 
^^Philosophic  Hinduism  may  be  described  as  the  Hin- 
duism of  the  Upanishads,  Bhagavad  Gita,  etc.  In  its 
pure  form  it  is  held  by  comparatively  few;  but  some  of 
its  doctrines  are  included  in  Popular  Hinduism,  and 
many  persons  combine  the  two.  Vcdic  Hinduism:  the 
adherents  of  the  Arya  Somaj  in  North  India  and  the 
Punjab  profess  to  base  their  creed  on  the  Vedas.  New 
Hinduism  includes  various  attempts  to  purify  Hindu- 
ism," such,  e.  g.,  as  are  being  made  by  the  Brahmo- 
Somaj. 


The  Religious  Life  of  the  Masses,  45 

I.  T/ie  basis  of  popular  Hinduism.  Its  main  ele- 
ments are  derived  from  five  sources — aboriginal  tradi- 
tions and  the  literary  works  named  above.  Aboriginal 
traditions  and  practices  are  everywhere  present  and  form 
the  groundwork  upon  which  a  more  elaborate  structure 
has  t^en  founded.  From  this  source  the  superstitious 
character  of  Hinduism  largely  comes. 

The  two  great  epics  of  India,  corresponding  to  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  are  the  Ramayana  and  Mahabharata. 
The  Ramayana, — "pertaining  to  Rama," — is  ascribed  to 
Valmiki,  and  may  have  been  written  300  B.  C.  It 
describes  the  noble  life  of  the  hero  Rama.  The  Maha- 
bharata— ''great  (poem  or  feud)  of  the  Bharatas" — is 
attributed  to  Vyasa,  the  "arranger"  of  the  Vedas,  and 
may  have  been  put  together  at  difference  times  after  200 
B.  C.  A  fourth  of  it  is  devoted  to  the  struggle  of  the 
two  great  races  of  North  India;  the  remainder  is  an  en- 
cyclopedia of  matters  which  all  Hindus  of  culture  ought 
to  know.  These  epics  have  been  called  by  eminent 
scholars  "the  Bible  of  the  Hindus."  They  added  to  the 
Hindu  belief  the  idea  of  incarnations  and  the  three-fold 
manifestation  of  the  Divine  Being. 

The  Furanas,  "old"  or  legendary  matters,  are  eighteen 
in  number,  excluding  the  lesser  ones,  and  the  earliest 
do  not  date  back  more  than  >a  thousand  years. 
Founded  on  the  Epics  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  women 
and  low  castes  who  could  not  study,  they  have  become 
the  "authority  for  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Popular  Hin- 
duism of  the  present  day."  They  are  divided  into  three 
groups  of  six  Puranas  each,  which  are  devoted  respect- 
ively to  the  praises  of  Vishnu,  Siva  and  Brahma,  though 
the  Brahma  section  is  largely  descriptive  of  other  gods. 

The  Tantras,  meaning  "to  stretch,"  consist  of  dia- 
logues, incantations  and  magic  services,  and  are  the 
sacred  writings  of  those  who  worship  the  wife  of  Siva. 
They  have  furnished  to  Hinduism  its  most  licentious  and 
abominable  features. 

2.  Lower  objects  of  worship.  Many  of  these  are  de- 
rived from  aboriginal  sources  and  are  common  to  lower 


46  TJie  Cross  in  tlie  Land  of  the  Trident. 

races  of  other  lands.    They  will  be  named  in  ascending 
order. 

Pla7its  are  worshiped  partly  because  it  is  believed  that 
gods,  demons,  men  and  animals  may  transmigrate  into 
plants,  which  are  thus  possessed  of  consciousness,  pleas- 
ure and  pain ;  and  partly  because  of  their  relation  to  cer- 
tain gods.  The  margosa,  wood-apple,  the  pipal  tree,  the 
sacred  kusa  grass  and  the  toolsi  plant  are  those  most 
revered.  The  later  is  "especially  the  Hindu  woman's 
divinity.  *  *  *  ♦  ^n  ^^  religion  of  many  of  the 
women  consists  in  walking  around  the  tulasi  (toolsi) 
plant,  in  saying  prayers  to  it,  or  in  placing  offerings 
before  it." 

Water  worship,  SO  common  in  northern  India,  is  as 
natural  as  the  veneration  in  which  the  Egyptians  held  the 
health-giving  Nile.  While  the  Ganges  is  especially 
sacred,  the  Narbada  is  by  some  even  more  highly  ex- 
alted. Ablutions  in  these  rivers  free  from  all  sin,  and 
death  on  their  banks  or  in  their  waters  is  ardently  de- 
sired. Two  wells  are  also  deemed  worthy  of  special 
reverence,  the  ''Well  of  Knowledge"  and  the  "Ear-ring 
Well"  at  Benares.  Multitudes  resort  to  them  hoping  by 
laving  in  their  filthy  waters  to  remove  the  sins  of  a  life- 
time. 

A  very  common  form  of  pujah,  or  worship,  is  offered 
to  tools  or  implements  of  trade.  They  thus  become  a 
sort  of  fetich  useful  as  a  means  of  gaining  a  livelihood. 
Hence,  plows,  nets,  -account-books,  ^baskets  of  the 
women,  and  even  the  pickaxe  formerly  carried  by  the 
thugs  with  which  to  bury  their  victims,  are  all  objects 
of  worship. 

Animals  are  deemed  sacred  mainly  because  of  the 
Hindu  doctrine  of  transmigration.  "Even  a  flea  may 
enclose  the  soul  of  some  person  who  was  a  sage  or  a 
saint."  Fear  prompts  to  the  worship  of  some  animals 
as  that  of  the  tiger  and  the  cobra;  others,  as  the  mon- 
key, receive  reverence  because  of  their  half  human  form 
and  strange  ways,  and  some,  as  the  cow,  are  worshiped 
for  their  usefulness  and  the  fancied  virtues  of  their  ex- 


The  Religious  Life  of  the  Masses.  47 

crements;  while  still  others,  as  the  cat,  are  reverenced 
because  of  their  services  to  the  gods. 

The  worship  of  ancestors,  so  natural  to  the  loving 
human  heart,  and  hence  prevalent  in  various  lands,  is 
so  prominent  in  India  that  Prof.  Bhattacharjya  says  of 
it:  "Ancestor  worship,  in  some  form  or  other,  is  the 
beginning,  the  middle  and  the  end  of  what  is  known  as  the 
Hindu  religion."  As  the  survivors  believe  that  the  dead 
may  become  demons  or  divinities,  and  that  they  must 
be  nourished  for  three  generations,  they  naturally  pay 
much  heed  to  such  worship.  So  important  a  part  of  a 
son's  duty  is  it  to  see  that  the  departed  parent  is  pro- 
vided with  an  intermediate  body  and  enabled  to  perform 
the  terrible  journey  to  Yama,  that  the  word  for  son  is 
putra,  "which  is  supposed  to  mean  one  who  saves  from 
hell — Put."  The  shraddha  ceremonies  performed  for 
this  purpose,  are  a  considerable  cause  of  the  poverty  of 
the  people. 

Living  men  deemed  divine  are  the  entire  Brahman 
caste.  This  worship  of  the  Brahmans  is  explained  by 
the  familiar  stanza: 

"All  the  world  is  subject  to  the  gods; 

The  gods  are  subject  to  the  Holy  Texts; 
The  Holy  Texts  are  subject  to  the  Brahmans; 

Therefore  the  Brahman  is  my  God." 

Most  of  the  people  accordingly  place  themselves  under 
the  instruction  of  a  guru,  or  Brahman  spiritual  teacher, 
and  besides  liberally  feeing  him,  they  render  him  almost 
divine  homage. 

In  addition  to  these  living  divinities,  there  are  five 
classes  of  me7i  some  of  whom  have  been  deified  after 
death, — kings,  warriors,  Brahmans,  saints  and  sages. 
Occasionally  such  deities  become  gods  of  the  first  order, 
as  Rama  and  Krishna  who  were  of  human  parentage. 
Usually,  however,  these  gods  are  worshiped  only  for  a 
time,  so  that  Sir  A.  C.  Lyall  is  justified  in  saying  that 
"the  Indian  Pantheon,  like  the  palace  in  the  Persian  par- 
able, is  but  a  caravanserai." 

Village  deities  are  more  constant  in  their  power  than 


•is  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

the  gods  just  named  They  are  legion,  being  found  in 
every  village  and  in  many  homes,  and  take  the  pTace 
of  the  higher  gods  among  the  lower  orders  of  the  people. 
Their  presence  is  indicated  by  patches  of  red  paint  on 
rocks  or  under  trees,  or  by  rude  images.  Their  power  is 
such  that  the  family  or  village  is  supposed  to  be  delivered 
by  them  from  all  calamities  due  to  demons.  The  most 
popular  of  thes  tutelar  deities  are  the  "Mothers''  who 
have  especially  to  do  with  diseases.  The  nearly  quarter 
of  a  million  who  die  annually  of  smallpox  owe  their 
death  chiefly  to  the  smallpox  goddess,  ''Mother  of 
Death,''  who  would  be  enraged  if  persons  were  to  be  vac- 
cinated. 

Demon  woiship  is  especially  common  in  Southern 
India  as  water  worship  is  in  the  north.  Sir  M.  Williams 
writes:  "The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  India 
are,  from  the  cradle  to  the  burying  ground,  victim.s  of  a 
form  of  mental  disease  which  is  best  expressed  by  the 
term  demonophobia.  They  are  haunted  and  oppressed 
by  a  perpetual  dread  of  demons.  They  are  firmly  con- 
vinced that  evil  spirits  of  all  kinds,  from  malignant 
fiends  to  merely  mischievous  imps  and  elves,  are  on  the 
watch  to  harm,  harass  and  torment  them;  to  cause 
plague,  sickness,  famine  and  disaster;  to  impede,  injure 
and  mar  every  good  work."  Most  demons  live  in  trees 
and  they  exhibit  their  presence  in  whirlwinds  and  night- 
mares as  well  as  in  the  calamities  named  above. 

3.  Principal  gods  a?td  goddesses.  The  number  of 
Hindu  deities  is  stated  as  330,000,000.  This  is  a  hyper- 
bole, indicating  that  they  are  beyond  number.  Every 
Hindu  usually  worships  many  gods.  The  important 
ones  only  are  here  givCii. 

Brahfna  or  Brahni  (neuter  gender)  is  more  commonly 
regarded  as  supreme  than  any  other  deity.  No  temple 
or  rites  of  worship  are,  however,  prescribed  for  this  god. 
At  first  destitute  of  all  qualities,  he  at  length  became  pos- 
sessed of  self-consciousness,  and  later  truth,  passion  and 
darkness  were  developed.  Other  accounts  ascribe  to 
Brahm  formlessness,  eternity,  omniscience,  orhnipo- 
tence,    truthfulness,  righteousness,  and  purity.     He  is 


The  Religious  Life  of  the  Masses.  49 

the  god  revered  by  the  Brahmo-Somajes.       To     the 
masses  Brahm  is  Httle  more  than  a  name. 

Brahma,  In  process  of  time,  Brahm  brooded  for  a 
year  over  a  golden  t%%  placed  in  the  waters,  and  Brahma 
(masculine  gender)  was  produced,  the  first  person  of  the 
Hindu  Trimurti  or  Triad.  He  is  represented  as  a  red 
man  with  four  arms  and  four  heads.  He  is  said  to  have 
but  one  temple  and  his  worship  has  ceased,  though  the 
Brahmans  claim  that  in  adoring  the  sun  they  are  wor- 
shiping him.  His  worship  was  discontinued  because  of 
gross  sin  which  he  is  said  to  have  committed,  though  it* 
is  popularly  remarked,  "Since  the  work  of  the  Creator  is 
complete,  no  benefit  can  be  gained  by  making  offerings 
to  him," — a  true  commentary  on  the  motives  underlying 
heathen  worship. 

Vishnu,  the  Preserver,  the  second  of  the  Triad,  is 
generally  represented  as  a  black  man  with  four  arms  and 
is  most  worshiped  in  southern  India.  The  more  intelli- 
gent Hindus  consider  Vishnu  as  a  spiritual  being  and  the 
fossil  ammonite  as  his  representative.  The  common 
people  regard  his  incarnations — variously  stated  as  from 
ten  to  twenty-two  in  number — most  highly  and  render 
the  bulk  of  their  worship  to  them.  These  avataras  or  in- 
carnations were  intended  to  correct  evil  or  to  effect  good 
in  the  world.  The  ten  avatars  commonly  spoken  of  are 
those  of  the  fish,  tortoise,  boar,  man-lion,  dwarf,  Paru- 
sarama  or  Rama  with  the  ax,  Rama  Chandra,  Krishna, 
Buddha  and  Kalki.  The  Rama  and  especially  the 
Krishna  incarnations  are  very  popular,  as  the  two  epics 
make  them  their  heroes.  Krishna's  avatar  contains 
many  features  common  to  that  of  Jesus,  but  on  the  other 
hand  he  is  unspeakably  licentious.  The  Buddha  incar- 
nation was  said  to  be  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  false 
doctrine  and  so  of  giving  the  gods  an  opportunity  to 
come  to  earth  and  regain  their  lost  position.  The  Kalki 
avatar  is  yet  to  come  and  at  that  time  Vishnu  will  usher 
in  the  universal  reign  of  righteousness,  peace  and  pros- 
perity. 

Siva,    the   Destroyer,      completes    the    Triad,  and  is 
most  worshiped  in  northern  India,  Benares  being  his 


50  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

principal  earthly  abode.  He  is  commonly  spoken  of  as 
Mahadeva,  **the  great  God,"  and  is  variously  represented 
as  an  ascetic,  as  ornamented  with  a  necklace  of  bones 
and  skulls,  as  five  headed,  etc.  The  idea  of  Reproducer 
follows  naturally  that  of  the  Destroyer  according  to  the 
Hindu  idea  of  transmigration.  As  the  majority  of  the 
temples  in  India  contain  the  symbols  of  Siva,  the  Linga 
and  Yoni,  the  character  of  this  licentious  worship  may  be 
imagined. 

While  theoretically  ^/le  principal  goddesses  are  Saras- 
vati,  Lakshmi  and  Uma,  the  wives  respectively  of 
Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva,  Sarasvati  is  worshiped 
mainly  by  students  as  being  the  goddess  of  wisdom. 
Lakshmi  is  more  popular,  being  the  goddess  of  pros- 
perity. Wilkins  quotes  in  this  connection  Carlyle's 
statement  that  the  most  popular  deity  in  Britain  is  "The 
God  of  Getting-On."  The  wife  of  Siva  is,  however,  the 
goddess  of  India.  Of  the  various  forms  under  which  she 
is  known,  the  most  remarkable  are  Parvati,  Durga  and 
Kali.  Calcutta  derives  its  name  from  "Kali  Ghat''  near 
Calcutta  where  there  is  a  noted  temple  of  Kali.  This 
figure  of  the  goddess  is  one  of  the  most  horrible  in  the 
pantheon.  Of  the  goddesses,  it  should  be  added,  the 
worship  is  especially  important  as  they  are  regarded  as 
the  energy  of  the  gods,  since  the  male  without  the  female 
is  unproductive  and  hence  the  female  is  the  real  force  in 
nature. 

One  other  god,  Ganesa,  should  be  mentioned,  as  he  Is 
the  foremost  among  the  deities  of  the  second  rank  and 
presides  over  wisdom.  He  is  the  son  of  Siva  and  ap- 
pears with  an  elephant's  head  and  the  stomach  of  a  glut- 
ton. He  is  found  in  most  places  of  business  and  is  in- 
voked at  the  commencement  of  every  important  enter- 
prise. All  books  begin  with,  "Honor  to  Ganesa!"  Am- 
bitious schoolboys,  desiring  his  aid  in  their  lessons, 
praise  him  by  telling  him  how  much  he  can  eat. 

The  images  ox  idols  of  the  pantheon  have  been  already 
alluded  to.  The  most  intelligent  worshipers  do  not 
regard  them  as  real  deities  but  merely  as  aids  to  wor- 
ship, though  this  is  not  true  of  the  masses.     The  many 


The  Religious  "^fe  of  the  Masses.  51 

hands,  heads  and  eyes  of  these  images  typify  the  great 
power  or  wisdom  of  the  deities. 

4.  Places  of  Worship.  Many  of  the  people  have  gods 
in  their  homes,  though  the  majority  of  them  have  no  reg- 
ular household  worship.  Rocks  or  trees  in  the  village 
which  are  marked  with  red  paint  are  divine  and  worship 
is  offered  there.  Temples  are  very  numerous  and  it  is 
in  them  that  worship  is  most  formal  and  efficacious. 
While  there  are  many  spacious  and  magnificent  temples 
in  India,  the  average  one  is  not  more  than  ten  feet 
square,  about  a  fourth  of  which  is  devoted  to  the  idol, 
there  being  enough  room  left  in  front  for  the  priest  to 
officiate.  There  are,  of  course,  no  seats  for  a  congrega- 
tion. Temple  building  is  an  act  of  great  merit;  hence 
the  large  number  of  smaller  temples,  as  merit  is  gained 
according  to  the  number  built  rather  than  their  qual- 
ity. This  belief  also  accounts  for  the  fact  that  new 
temples  are  built  beside  others  which  are  allowed  to  fall 
into  decay. 

5.  Modes  of  Worship.  Households  must  call  in 
a  priest  to  officiate  before  the  family  shrine.  At  the  tem- 
ples mediation  of  the  priests  is  also  necessary.  The 
offerings  presented  are  commonly  fruit,  sweetmeats, 
flowers,  sacred  leaves  and  grasses,  and,  on  special  occa- 
sions, offerings  of  flesh  are  presented  to  Kali.  These 
are  offered  by  the  priest  after  ringing  a  bell  and  mutter- 
ing the  sacred  Sanskrit  texts.  Vishnu  and  Siva's  wor- 
ship are  often  very  formal,  the  symbol  of  the  god  being 
treated  precisely  as  if  it  were  a  living  king,  being 
washed,  fed,  clothed,  fanned,  laid  to  rest  and  so  forth. 
The  people  offer  prayers  for  themselves,  usually  for  tem- 
poral blessings,  use  rosaries  to  keep  count,  and  make 
much  of  repeating  the  names  of  the  gods.  A  child  is 
often  given  a  god's  name  that  merit  may  be  laid  up  each 
time  the  child's  name  is  mentioned.  Parrots  are  also 
taught  to  repeat  divine  appellations,  the  merit  being 
given  to  the  owner. 

The  religious  prostitution  of  women  as  a  part  of  wor- 
ship is  one  of  the  dark  blots  on  Hinduism,  while  in  some 
of  the  sects  unspeakable  licentiousness  is  indulged  in  as 


53  The  Ci'oss  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

opening  "the  door  to  the  highest  form  of  salvation — 
complete  union  with  the  Supreme  Being." 

6.  Festivals.  To  relieve  the  monotony  of  a  life  of 
labor  where  a  Sabbath  is  not  known,  the  three  or  four 
festivals  each  month  prove  a  much  needed  opportunity 
for  relaxation.  Most  of  them  are  held  in  connection 
with  some  event  in  the  lives  of  the  gods.  Some  of 
them,  notably  the  Durga  Puja,  which  is  a  sort  of  Hindu 
Christmas,  have  pleasing  features;  others,  as  the  Hali, 
celebrate  the  shamelessness  of  deities  in  such  a  way  that 
it  has  been  remarked,  ''obscenity  becomes  a  measure  of 
piety."  All  ordinary  festivals  are  celebrated  in  the 
courtyard  of  some  rich  man  or  in  a  temporary  structure 
erected  for  the  purpose  by  the  villagers. 

7.  ,Ftlgri??iages  are  a  more  important  feature  of  Hin- 
duism, though  some  of  the  people  deem  one  pilgrimage 
enough  for  a  lifetime.  The  most  holy  men  spend  all 
their  lives  in  going  from  shrine  to  shrine.  India's  great 
Mecca  is  the  sacred  Benares  with  its  holy  wells.  Next 
in  importance  is  the  pilgrimage  to  Puri  where  is  the  tem- 
ple of  the  idol  Jagannatha  (Juggernaut),  "Lord  of  the 
World."  The  deaths  occurring  at  the  drawing  of  this 
idol's  car  ought  not  to  be  'considered  as  self-immolation. 
They  can  be  otherwise  accounted  for  in  such  crowds 
with  a  huge  car  which  goes  with  a  rush  when  started. 
Other  evils  due  to  unsanitary  provision  for  such  multi- 
tudes and  the  presence  of  harlots  and  thieves,  are  far 
worse. 

8.  Transmigration.  This  doctrine  of  Hinduism  pur- 
sues the  soul  after  death.  It  is  based  upon  the  belief  in 
immortality  and  professes  to  explain  the  differing  condi- 
tions of  those  born  on  the  earth.  One's  lot  is  due  to 
merit  or  demerit  in  previous  stages  of  existence. 
Through  8,400,000  births  one  reaches  at  length  the  glad 
time  when  individual  existence  is  absorbed  into  the  life 
of  the  Divine.  What  wonder  that  a  common  saying  is, 
"Existence  is  misery,"  or  that  a  Hindu  poet  thus  writes: 

"How  many  births  are  past,  I  cannot  tell; 

How  many  yet  to  come,  no  man  can   say; 
But  this  alone  I  know,  and  know  full  well, 

That  pain  and  grief  embitter  all  the  way." 


The  Religious  Life  of  the  Masses,  53 

Effects  of  Popular  Hinduism  upon  the  Life... 

The  effects  of  such  a  reHgion  upon  the  masses  are  in 
the  main  debasing,  but  are  not  spoken  of  in  assem- 
blies hke  the  Parhament  of  Religions  where  the  Vedic 
beliefs  and  modern  eclecticism  are  so  largely  empha- 
sized. 

1.  Hi7iduis7n  leads  to  manifold  loss.  It  causes  pov- 
erty by  its  system  of  caste,  described  in  a  previous 
chapter,travel  and  manufacture  being  discouraged  by  it. 
It  has  left  the  people  satisfied  with  their  ignorance  and 
superstitious  beliefs  thus  causing  intellectual  stagnation 
and  semi-imbecility.  Its  hostility  to  social  reform  con- 
stitutes the  greatest  stumbling-block  of  native  reformers. 
Hinduism-s  doctrine  of  caste  robs  the  believer  of  indi- 
vidual liberty  and  hinders  the  growth  of  nationality,  the 
people  of  different  sections  being  deemed  as  distinct  as 
horses  and  asses.  Its  divine  exaltation  of  the  priestly 
caste  degrades  the  other  castes  and  prevents  the  possi- 
bility of  their  getting  the  best  out  of  Hinduism. 

2.  The  ordmary  Hindu's  life  is  one  of  fear.  He  is 
all  the  time  in  bondage  because  of  his  dread  of  demons', 
the  evil  eye,  the  harm  coming  from  curses  and  Mantras 
which  "holy  men"  threaten  to  use  against  them.  As- 
trology causes  him  to  fear  the  planets;  omens  coming 
from  donkeys,  lizards,  etc.,  make  animals  a  cause  of 
dread. 

3.  Hinduism  injuriously  emphasizes  the  fo7'mal  ele- 
ment in  religion.  The  Pharisee  was  not  such  a  slave 
to  form  as  is  the  strict  Hindu.  If  there  is  any  mistake 
made  in  worship  it  must  all  be  done  over  again.  Re- 
ligious acts  performed  unintentionally  produce  the  same 
results -as  if  they  were  intended.  Austerities  of  every 
sort  are  the  fruitage  of  the  system.  Owing  to  this  em- 
phasis of  forms,  morality  is  divorced  from  religion. 
Priests  do  not  inculcate  the  importance  of  performing 
moral  duties;  on  the  contrary,  they  may  themselves  be 
living  a  flagrantly  immoral  life.  An  Indian  writer  char- 
acterizes Hinduism  as  ''god  without  MoraUty." 

4.  As  already  sho,wn,     Popular  Hinduism  is  impure. 


54  The  Cross  In  tJie  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Impurity  of  thought,  of  speech  and  in  act  are 
frightfully  prevalent,  and  are  abundantly  justified  by 
their  Sacred  Books, — which  are  so  obscene  that  only 
expurgated  translations  of  many  of  them  have  been  pub- 
lished,— and  by  the  lives  of  their  most  popular  divini- 
ties. The  immorality  of  Greek  and  Roman  deities,  can- 
not approach  that  of  the  Hindu  pantheon,  while  the 
gods  of  modern  China  are  perfectly  pure  in  compari- 
son. 

5.  Hinduism  is  highly  dishonori7ig  to  God.  Orig- 
inally the  Aryan  held  a  form  of  religion  which  was  a 
commendable  attempt  to  find  out  God,  but  to-day  the 
Hindu  dishonors  him  in  the  manner  described  in  the  first 
chapter  of  Romans.  Monsters  of  depravity,  unclean  ani- 
mals, plants  and  rocks,  are  made  to  take  the  place  of  the 
Divine,  while  God  is  not  in  all  their  thoughts. 

Hindu  Sayings  Frequently  Heard... 

The  Christian  worker  in  India  is  constantly  hearing 
the  following  proverbs,  used  by  Hindus  to  justify  their 
conduct.  These  sayings,  and  others  found  in  books 
on  India  should  be  pondered  by  the  prospective  mis- 
sionary, that  he  may  be  able  to  meet  them. 

*'We  must  walk  according  to  custom." 

''Every  one  should  follow  his  own  religion." 

''Different  religions  are  roads  leading  to  the  same 
city." 

"Whatever  is  written  on  our  own  heads  will  come  to 
pass," — i.  e.,  Deity  causes  all  things  and  the  blame  of 
wrong  doing  rests  on  him. 

"Where  is  faith,  there  is  God." 

"God  is  pervasive";  consequently,  any  object  may  be 
worshiped. 

"All  the  gods  are  the  same  though  worshiped  under 
different  names." 

"The  gods  can  do  as  they  please;"  hence  they  cannot 
be  criticised  for  the  evils  ascribed  to  them  in  the  Sacred 
Books. 

In  this  brief  statement  of  the  character  of  Hinduism, 


The  Religious  Life  of  the  Masses,  55 

popular  religion  has  alone  been  described.  That  there 
are  profound  truths  taught  in  the  Vedas,  and  that  na- 
tive religionists  who  are  eclectic  teach  far  different  doc- 
trines than  those  mentioned,  we  gratefully  acknowledge. 
The  various  Somajes  have  done  something  for  India's 
betterment.  So,  too,  the  latent  good  in  Hinduism,  con- 
tended for  by  a  recent  missionary  writer  in  "The  Con- 
temporary Review,"  ought  to  rejoice  the  hearts  of  Chris- 
tians. Yet  the  real  condition  of  the  masses  is  such  as 
to  awaken  Christian  compassion  and  stimulate  to  earnest 
eftort. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Encyclopaedias:  Same  as  Chapter  I.  with  article  "Hinduism," 
Encyclopaedia  of  Missions,  "Brahmanism"  in  the  Brittanica, 
and  "India,  Religions  of"  in  Concise  Dictionary  of  Religious 
Knowledge,  (1893). 

Barth:    Religions  of  India,  (1882),  Pp.  153-293- 

Bettany:  The  Great  Indian  Religions,  (1892),  Chs.  III.,  IV. 
The  World's  Religions,  (1891),  Pp.  213-254. 

Brown:    Races  of  Mankind,  Vol.  IV.  Pp.  34-51- 

Church  Missionary  Atlas,  Pt.  II.,  India,  (1887),  Pp.  89-95. 

Cust:    Pictures  of  Indian  Life,  (1881),  Ch.  III. 

Gracey:    India,  (1884),  Pp.  41-99. 

Grant:    Rehgions  of  the  World,  (1894),  Chs.  V.,  VI. 

Hunter:    Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  (1892),  Ch.  VIII. 

Hurst:    Indika,  (1891),  Chs.  XLVL,  LIV.,  LV.,  LXL,  LXH. 

Kennedy:  Life  and  Work  in  Benares  and  Kumaon,  (1884), 
Ch.  XXIX. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Apr.  1889,  Pp.  271-274.  Apr. 
1895,  Pp.  260-267. 

Murdoch:    Papers  on  Indian  Reform,  Popular  Hinduism.  (1889). 

Padmanji:    Once  Hindu,  Now  Christian,  Chs.  IX.,  XL 

Ridpath:    Great  Races  of  Mankind,  (1893),  Ch.  XXXVIII. 

RohUns:    Handbook  of  India,  (1883),  Ch.  III. 

Rowe:    Every-day  Life  in  India,  (1881),  Chs.  Ill,  XVIII. 

Storrow:    India,  Pt.  I.,  (1883),  Pp.  30-44- 

Strachey:    India,  (1894),  Ch.  XVII. 

Thohurn:    India  and  Malaysia,  (1893),  Chs.  VI.,  IX.,  X. 


66  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Wilkins:    Daily  Life  and  Work  in  India,  (1888),  Chs.  VI.-XI. 

Hindu  Mythology,  (1882),  especially  Pp.  77-256. 
Williams:    Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,  (1891),  especially  chap- 
ter HI. 

Hinduism,  (1890),  especially  chapters  Vn.-XII. 

Modern  India,  (1878),  Pp.  202-219. 

Religious  Thought  and  Life  in  India,  (1883),  especially  chap- 
ter III. 
Wilson:    Essays  on  the  Religions  of  the  Hindus,  (1862),  Vol. 

IL,  Lects.  I.,  II. 
World's  Parliament  of  Religions,  (1893),  especially  pages  316- 

339,  456-460. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INDIA'S    REAL   MAN   AND   WOMAN. 

"As  there  is  much  beast  and  some  devil  in  man,  so  is  there 
some  angel  and  some  God  in  man.  The  beast  and  the  devil 
may  be  conquered,  but  in  this  life  never  destroyed/' 

—8.  T.  Coleridge, 

The  Census... 

India  is,  next  to  China,  the  most  populous  of  coun- 
tries, and  her  sons  and  daughters  constitute  about  one- 
fifth  of  the  human  family.  Her  population  in  1891  was, 
including  Burma,  287,223,431,  or  more  than  four  and  a 
half  times  that  of  the  United  States.  The  males  exceed 
the  females  by  6,231,161.  If  the  birth  and  death  rates 
of  British  India  prevailed  over  the  whole  Empire,  9,708,- 
137  persons  would  have  been  born  and  8,504,673  would 
have  died  in  1891, —  a  tremendous  responsibihty,  con- 
sidering their  character,  for  Britain  and  the  Christian 
world. 

Density  of  Population... 

To  the  missionary  this  item  is  of  importance,  as  it 
measures  the  number  within  geographical  reach  from 
any  given  centre  of  work.  In  Appendix  A  the  density  per 
square  mile  of  the  several  divisions  are  given. 

A  glance  at  the  map  in  connection  with  these  figures 
shows  that  the  most  populous  districts  are  along  the 
Ganges  and  the  coast,  and  in  the  Deccan.  The  hill 
and  mountain  systems  and  the  desert  of  northwest  India 


68  JTfee  Cros^  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

are  most  sparsely  settled.  The  average  number  of  per- 
sons to  the  square  mile  in  the  whole  Empire  is  184, 
whereas  in  the  United  States  it  is  21.3.  This  density  is 
the  more  remarkable  as  India's  population  is  almost  en- 
tirely rural,  there  being  but  seventy-five  cities  of  over 
50,000  inhabitants,  while  there  are  566,046  villages  of 
500  or  less. 

Principal  Races... 

Four  race  groups  only  will  be  mentioned,  as  they  in- 
clude all  those  numbering  more  than  one  and  one-half 
millions. 

1.  T/ie  Kolarians  may  have  'been  the  first  to  enter 
India.  Coming  from  the  north-east  they  apparently 
spread  westward  over  the  northern  plains.  At  present 
"they  dwell  chiefly  along  the  northwestern  ranges  of  the 
central  table  land  which  covers  the  southern  half  of 
India,"  and  number  2.96  millions. 

2.  The  Tibeto-Biirnians  seem  to  have  come  at  va- 
rious times  from  Tibet  into  north-eastern  India.  They 
still  remain  in  the  mountainous  sections  of  the  north-east 
and  number  7.29  milhons.  These  two  race  stocks  are 
probably  of  Mongol  origin. 

3.  The  Dravidians  probably  entered  India  from  the 
north-west,  and  driving  the  Kolarians  before  them  to  the 
mountainous  region  of  northern  Deccan,  they  event- 
ually burst  through  their  territory  and  scattered  over 
southern  India.  They  now  dwell  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula  and  are  reported  as  numbering  52.96 
millions. 

4.  The  most  numerous  race  is  the  ^ry^-/^^//r.  As  we 
have  already  seen,  the  Aryans  entered  the  country  from 
the  north-west  and  gradually  overspread  the  northern 
half  01  India.  By  a  process  of  absorption  and  accretion 
from  the  northwest  they  have  become  the  most  numer- 
ous race  in  the  Empire,  some  195.46  millions  in  all. 

Chief  Languages  of  India... 

According  to  the  last  census  there  were  eleven  Ian- 


Indians  Real  Man  and  Woman. 


59 


guages  spoken  by  five  million  people  or  more.    They 
are  as  follows : — 

Race  stock.      Language.       Where  spoken.    Millions  speaking  it. 
Aryo-Indic  Hindi,  N.  W.   Provinces,   Raj- 

putana,  Punjab,  &c.       85.67 
Aryo-Indic  Bengali,  Lower  Bengal  41-34 

Dravidian  Telugu,  Lower  basins  of  Kistna 

and  Godavari  19.88 

Aryo-Indic  Marathi,  Bombay    and    N.    W. 

Deccan,  18.89 

Aryo-Indic  Punjabi,  Punjab,  1772 

Dravidian  Tamil,  Southern    India    as    far 

north  as  Madras,  15.23 

Aryo-Indic  Gujarati,  Region  around  Gulf  of 

Cambay,  IO.62 

Dravidian  Kanarese,         Mysore     and     districts    ' 

northward,  9-75 

Aryo-Indic  Uriya,  Orissa,  9.01 

Tibeto-Burman    Burmese,  Burma,    .  5.93 

Dravidian  Malayalam,       Travancore  and  rest  of 

Malabar  coast,  5.43 

The  English  language  stood  twenty-eighth  in  order 
with  a  population  of  238,499.  Hindustani,  or  Urdu 
(i.  e.  camp  language),  is  a  dialect  of  Hindi,  differing  from 
it  in  its  large  admixture  of  Persian  words,  and  in  that  it 
is  usually  printed  in  Persian  or  Arabic  characters,  while 
Hindi  is  commonly  printed  in  Sanskrit  letters.  Hin- 
dustani with  a  southern  variety  of  it,  the  Dakhani,  has 
become  the  lingua  franca  of  India  and  is  "the  official 
tongue  under  English  rule,  except  so  far  as  English  itself 
is  used." 

Of  these  tongues  only  Bengali,  Hindi  and  Marathi  of 
the  Aryan  vernaculars  have  received  much  cultivation 
and  possess  an  important  literature.  Of  the  Dravidian 
group,  Tamil,  Telugu,  Kanarese,  Alalayalam  all  have  a 
considerable  literature.  Though  the  Telugu,  from  its 
abundant  vowel  and  liquid  sounds,  is  called  the  Italian 
of  the  East,  the  Tamil  is  more  important  and  is  spoken 
also  in  northern  Ceylon,  and  to  some  extent  in  the 
Straits  Settlements  and  in  Burma.  The  entire  Bible 
has  been  translated  into  all  these  languages  and  an  im- 
portant Christian  literature  has  been  prepared.  The 
two  great  religious  tongues  of  India,  the  Sanskrit  in 


60  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

which  the  Vedas  and  other  rehgious  books  of  Hindu- 
ism are  written,  and  the  Buddhist  sacred  tongue,  the 
Pali, — 2i  later  form  of  Sanskrit — are  no  longer  spoken. 
The  Bible  has,  however,  been  translated  into  the  former 
language  while  a  Pali  New  Testament  has  been  pub- 
lished. These  are,  of  course,  oi  use  only  to  scholars 
or  to  the  priestly  caste. 

Main  Racial  Characteristics... 

Levi  in  the  article  'Tnde'^  in  La  Grande  Encyclopedic 
gives  the  following  pen  picture  of  the  leading  races: 
*'The  Aryan  type  is  marked  by  a  long  head;  the  face  is 
long  symmetrical  and  narrow;  the  nose  is  straight 
and  delicate;  the  forehead  is  well  developed;  features 
regular,  and  the  facial  angle  high;  in  stature  he  is  some- 
what tall ;  the  complexion  is  clear. 

'The  Dravidian  type  inclines  somewhat  toward  the 
long  head;  the  nose  is  large  and  broad;  the  facial  angle 
is  comparatively  low;  the  lips  are  somewhat  thick,  face 
large  and  fleshy;  the  features  are  coarse  and  irregular; 
the  height  average  but  rather  low;  figure  squat  and  the 
limbs  strong;  the  complexion  varies  from  brown  to 
almost  black. 

'The  Mongol  /y/<?  (including  the  Tibeto-Burman  and 
the  Kolarian)  is  marked  by  a  short  head;  the  face  is 
large,  nose  short  and  large;  the  cheek  bones  are  high 
and  prominent;  the  eyes  appear  to  be  set  awry  upon 
the  face." 

Sectional  Differentiae... 

Other  differences,  largely  due  to  local  environment, 
though  partly  racial  are  thus  described  by  Keene: 
"In  the  Punjab  and  in  the  Indus  Desert  where  the  earth 
has  only  yielded  her  increase  to  strenuous  labor,  the 
peasantry  are  strong  and  warlike;  in  the  Eastern  prov- 
inces, where  the  water  supply  is  abundant,  the  inhabi- 
tants are  densely  packed  but  physically  weak;  in  the 
central  parts  the  conditions  are  of  an  intermediate  char- 
acter; a  fertility  somewhat  less  than  in  Bengal  and  with 


India's  Real  Man  and  Woman.  61 

less  certainty  of  rainfall  produces  races  which  from 
Oudh  to  the  Narbada  have  always  been  robust  and 
laborious,  almost— but  not  quite — as  much  so  as  in  the 
drier  regions  of  the  far  west."  The  height,  strength  and 
courage  of  those  dwelling  in  the  North  are  generally 
greater  than  are  found  in  southern  India.  While  these 
general  statements  are  in  the  main  true,  the  Brahman 
maintains  his  individuality  in  all  sections.  Everywhere 
he  is,  like  every  other  one  of  his  fellow  religionists, 
"imbued  with  a  lofty  pride  transmitted  through  long 
generations." 

5ome  General  Characteristics  of  the  People... 

In  the  midst  of  these  differences  there  are  some  char- 
acteristics common  to  most  Hindus. 

I.  Physically  considered,  the  average  person  i? 
possessed  of  greater  powers  of  endurance  and  of  con- 
tinuous bodily  exertion  with  but  scanty  sustenance  than 
we  see  here  in  America;  indeed,  the  Hindu  is  scarcely  ex- 
celled by  any  race  in  this  respect.  At  the  same  time,  it 
has  been  estimated  that  in  the  matter  of  strength  he  has 
not  half  that  of  the  European,  while  in  nervous  power 
he  has  about  one-third  our  strength.  As  a  workman, 
therefore,  he  is  worth  only  one-sixth  as  much  as  an 
American. 

Reclus  thus  describes  the  physical  appearance  of  the 
average  Hindu: — "Although  nearly  every  racial  trait  is 
represented  amongst  these  vast  multitudes,  the  prevail- 
ing type  is  characterised  by  pliant  limbs,  thin  legs,  a 
purely  oval  face,  regular  features,  black  wavy  hair,  a 
complexion  ranging  from  the  Italian  brown  to  that  of 
the  swarthy  Arab,  penetrating  glance,  mild  but  suspi- 
cious expression.  While  less  muscular  than  the  Euro-' 
pean,  the  Hindu  is  more  graceful  in  his  movements,  and 
on  the  whole  even  better  looking.  ****** 
Epidemics  commit  fearful  ravages  among  these  en- 
feebled populations.  Cholera  is  domiciled  in  all  large 
towns;  elephantiasis,  under  various  forms  is  very  com- 
mon, afflicting  one-fifth  of  the  inhabitants  in  some  prov- 


62  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

inces;  and  in  1872  there  were  as  many  as  102,000  lepers 
in  the  three  Presidencies  alone.  The  mean  death-rate 
for  the  whole  of  India  is  stated  by  Hunter  to  be  32.57 
per  thousand,  or  one-third  higher  than  West  Europe." 

The  weakness  of  this  race  can  hardly  be  explained  by 
the  climate  and  their  vegetable  diet;  as  the  Chinese  in 
Burma  and  the  Parsis  in  Bombay  live  under  similar  cli- 
matic and  dietetic  conditions,  and  are  stronger  than  cor- 
responding classes  of  Hindus.  Early  marriages  and 
the  inter-marriage  for  centuries  of  more  or  less  consan- 
guineous parties  doubtless  have  much  to  do  with  their 
feebleness. 

2.  Social  characteristics.  Caste  naturally  unites 
the  people  of  a  given  subdivision  very  closely.  At  the 
same  time,  caste  divisions  reproduce  in  the  little  village 
the  same  evils  of  class  divisions  that  our  cities  have  to 
contend  with.  Happily  for  their  peace,  these  differ- 
ences are  looked  upon  as  decreed  and  no  occasion  for 
heartburnings.  In  the  family  there  is  little  of  the  social 
spirit  as  we  have  seen.  Yet  in  the  matter  of  labor  there 
is  a  general  care  for  the  interests  of  all.  This  is  the  key 
to  the  industrial  situation  rather  than  caste  alone. 
Thus  the  European  in  India  needs  to  have  a  troop  of 
servants,  each  doing  the  work  appropriate  to  his  caste 
and  also  that  which  will  not  encroach  on  the  interests 
of  other  workmen. 

Apart  from  the  caste  and  trade  guild  regulations,  altru- 
ism in  India  is  lost  in  an  intense  egoism,  and  this  holds 
true  in  one's  relations  to  those  outside  of  one's  own  caste 
division,  to  the  country  at  large,  and  to  the  gods  above. 
The  losses,  sufferings  and  cruelties  that  come  to  others 
are  regarded  with  supreme  unconcern.  Such  a  thing 
as  patriotism  does  not  exist  among  the  masses;  while 
the  disinterested  benevolence  of  missionaries  is  looked 
upon  with  suspicion.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions 
to  this  broad  statement,  many  of  the  wealthy  being 
munificent  in  their  gifts,  while  the  indigent  are  fre- 
quently aided  by  the  very  poor. 

Festivals,  pilgrimages  and  temple  worship  are  only 
a  partial  corrective  to  these  unsocial  conditions,  since 


India's  Real  Man  and  Woman.  C 

caste  spirit  prevails,  and  separates  even  there.  Chris- 
tianity has  found  it  one  of  its  most  difficult  tasks  to 
bring  together  into  one  social  body  those  who  have 
chosen  Christ  as  their  common  Head. 

3.  Intellectual  power.  That  the  Aryo-Indic  section 
of  the  population  have  possessed  intellectual  power  in 
the  past  is  abundantly  evidenced  by  the  Sanskrit  lan- 
guage and  the  earlier  literature  embalmed  within  it 
Max  Miiller  does  not  unduly  laud  these  writers  of  a 
purer  age  when  he  writes: — "If  I  were  asked  under 
what  sky  the  human  mind  has  most  fully  developed  some 
of  its  choicest  gifts,  has  most  deeply  pondered  on  the 
greatest  problems  of  life,  and  has  found  solutions  of 
some  of  them  which  will  deserve  the  attention  of  those 
who  have  studied  Plato  and  Kant — I  should  point  to 
India."  At  the  present  time  also  India  possesses  men 
of  marked  ability  in  the  scholarly  walks  of  life,  thus 
proving  her  right  to  being  called  intellectual. 

The  masses  do  not  rank  high  in  this  direction,  but  in 
time  the  present  educational  movement  on  the  part  of 
the  Government  and  missionary  societies  will  introduce 
scholarly  blood  into  their  veins.  They  are  much  like 
the  African  slaves  in  the  South  before  any  strain  of 
white  blood  was  theirs,  and  like  them  mtellectual 
progress  must  be  gradual.  A  better  system  of  phi- 
losophy and  of  logic  will  prove  helpful  even  to  the  acute 
and  hair-splitting  reasoner  among  the  Brahmans. 
Their  premises  are  often  wholly  false,  just  as  was  the 
case  in  Europe  before  the  rise  of  the  inductive  method. 
A  Brahman  proudly  building  a  castle  of  sophistries  upon 
the  foundation  of  a  commonly  accepted  proverb  proves 
one  of  the  missionary's  strongest  opponents. 

4.  Moral  nature  of  the  Hindu.  Widely  differing  esti- 
mates here  confront  us,  the  historian  Mill,  e.  g.,  paint- 
ing their  character  in  somber  colors,  while  a  recent 
native  writer  adduces  a  multitude  of  occidental  wit- 
nesses to  prove  that  his  countrymen  rank  high  in  respect 
to  morals.  Another  writer  puts  the  case,  thus: — "There 
is  no  degree  of  cruelty,  no  excess  of  vice,  no  hardened 
profligacy,  no  ineffable  abomination,  of  which  we  can- 


64  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

not  find  examples  among  the  Hindus;  but  neither  is 
there,  on  the  other  hand,  any  height  of  virtue  which  they 
have  not  reached/' 

Striving  toward  the  mean,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
masses  are  respectful  toward  their  superiors,  patient 
and  even  tempered,  resigned,  peaceable,  simple  and 
temperate  in  their  habits,  possessed  of  great  fortitude 
under  disaster,  and  industrious.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
lack  truthfulness,  are  wanting  in  frankness,  are  avari- 
cious, ultra-conservative,  lacking  in  foresight,  and  super- 
stitious. Some  of  these  characteristics  are  not  strictly 
moral  in  our  view,  but  they  are  to  the  Hindu,  of  whom 
it  is  said,  'They  eat  religiously,  drink  religiously,  bathe 
religiously,  dress  religiously,  and  sin  religiously."  In  a 
word,  the  characteristic  which  distinguishes  the  Hindi: 
from  other  men  is  his  religiousness,  or  better,  his  relig- 
iosity. 

5.  Additional  feminine  characteristics.  Dr.  Murdoch 
thus  epitomises  them.  The  woman,  who  is  nearly 
always  a  wife,  is  faithful  and  devoted  to  her  husband, 
afifectionate  toward  her  children,  attentive  to  household 
duties,  sympathetic  toward  the  poor  and  distressed, 
modest,  and,  compared  with  women  of  the  Occident, 
remarkably  free  from  crime.  Over  against  these  excellen- 
cies are  placed  the  following  defects.  She  is  ignorant,  ab- 
sorbed with  petty  littlenesses,  is  passionately  fond  of  jew- 
els, exhibits  a  false  modesty,  is  an  unrivaled  scold,  is 
unable  to  train  her  children  properly,  exerts  little  moral 
influence  over  her  husband,  and  is  extremely  supersti- 
tious. These  weaknesses  Hindu  men  and  Brahman 
priests  are  largely  responsible  for. 

Physically  the  ordinary  woman  seems  to  be  much 
stronger  than  women  of  the  West,  as  she  performs 
heavy  labor  on  the  farm  and  on  the  roads ;  yet  Hon.  M. 
L.  Sircar,  M.  D.,  states  that  "From  medical  observation 
extending  over  thirty  years,  he  could  say  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  Hindu  women  die  prematurely  through 
early  marriage,  twenty-five  per  cent  more  were  invalided 
by  the  same  cause  and  the  vast  majority  of  the  remainder 
suffered  in  health  from  it."    This  remark  applies  espe- 


India's  Real  Man  and  Woman,  65 

cially  to  women  of  the  higher  castes,  but  it  is  true  to  a 
less  degree  also  of  the  poorer  women. 

The  Hindu  of  the  Future... 

Are  there  sufficient  grounds  for  believing  that  he  is 
susceptible  of  much  improvement?  Undoubtedly  there 
are,  and  among  them  the  following  may  be  mentioned : 

1.  Barbarism  is  yielding  to  civilization.  This  is 
true  among  the  wild  tribes  and  in  the  feudatory  states. 
Thus  the  leaf-wearers  of  Orissa,  the  Andaman  Island- 
ers, and  the  Hill  men  of  Madras  are  coming  into  civil- 
ized life  and  are  proving  a  helpful  factor  in  India's  pop- 
ulation. 

One  of  the  marked  exceptions  to  general  rules  noted 
in  India  is  the  increase  in  population  among  these  lower 
races  as  they  become  civilized.  In  the  case  of  our 
Indians,  and  among  the  Incas  of  South  America  as 
well  as  in  the  case  of  the  dwellers  in  the  South  Seas,  the 
incoming  of  civilization  has  tended  to  deteriorate  the 
race  both  in  point  of  vitality  and  morals.  In  India  it 
is  quite  the  reverse. 

2.  Evil  customs  are  disappearing.  The  sati  is 
a  thing  of  the  past,  while  the  rehgious  custom  of  thug- 
gery has  also  been  abolished.  Infanticide  has  been 
reduced  within  very  narrow  limits.  The  Native  Mar- 
riage Act  fixing  the  minimum  age  of  the  bride  at 
fourteen,  and  the  Widow  Marriage  Act,  though  only 
permissive,  are  yet  hopeful  signs  of  the  future.  The 
India  Penal  Code  already  regards  the  consummation  of 
marriage  before  the  age  of  ten  years  as  criminal,  and 
efforts  are  making  to  raise  the  age  limit  to  thirteen  or 
fourteen.  Special  regulations  have  also  been  passed 
regarding  Christian  marriage. 

3.  Caste  regulations  are  being  slowly  modified.  The 
proud  Brahmans  of  Calcutta  in  solemn  conclave  wove 
a  web  of  sophistries  about  the  common  hydrants  of  the 
city,  sufficiently  thick  to  prevent  pollution  from  coming 
from  their  use  after  the  pariah.  Even  Christians  are 
now  allowed  to  drink  from  the  village  well.    Brahm^in 


66  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 

and  Sudra  boys  attend  the  same  schools,  sometimes 
sharing  the  same  mat,  and  graduate  at  the  same  college. 
The  railway  brings  into  close  proximity  the  holy  man 
and  the  despised  scavenger.  Intermarriage  of  those  of 
different  castes  has  taken  place  in  prominent  families. 
Even  Brahmans  are  known  to  occasionally  share  the 
felicity  of  English  roast  beef. 

4.  Saniia7'y  regulations  are  being  agitated  by  the  edu- 
cated and  enforced  even  among  the  poorest  in  some  sec- 
tions, thus  improving  the  health  of  the  community  and 
the  chances  for  life  of  the  coming  generation. 

5.  Agriculture  is  being  improved.  The  Government 
is  increasing  the  length  of  irrigating  canals  and  the 
number  of  reservoirs.  American  ploughs  are  being 
ordered  and  a  deeper  tillage  results.  Fertilization,  rota- 
tion of  crops,  and  improved  cultivation  are  ideas  which 
education  abroad  has  given  the  scientific  young  native, 
and  which  are  practically  demonstrated  on  model 
farms. 

6.  Manufactures  are  increasing.  The  missionary  has 
little  difficulty  in  securing  from  India  itself  the  money 
for  an  industrial  educational  plant.  Cotton,  jute, 
woolen,  and  paper  mills  and  even  beer  breweries  are  no 
longer  novelties  in  India  so  that  new  industries  are 
opening  up  to  the  Hindu. 

7.  Public  spirit  is  beifig  aroused.  The  National 
Congress,  which  has  held  annual  meetings  since  1884, 
was  organized  among  the  natives  to  discuss  India's 
material,  social,  and  political  needs,  while  the  573  ver- 
nacular newspapers  of  1891,  published  in  sixteen  lan- 
guages, are  continually  agitating  a  variety  of  reforms. 
A  species  of  patriotism  is  thus  being  slowly  developed. 
8.  Education  is  the  stepping  stone  to  competence  in 
India,  and  is  appreciated  by  her  enterprising  youth  of 
both  sexes.  In  1891,  139  colleges,  99,185  institutions 
of  general  education,  578  technical  and  special  schools, 
and  38,212  private  institutions,  furnished  instructions 
to  3,382,048  males,  and  to  316,313  females.  This  leaven 
will  materially  affect  the  mass  of  246,546,176  natives, 
who  were  unable  to  read  or  write.    A^  ^ast  the  intellects 


Indians  Real  Man  and  Woman,  67 

of  women  and  of  children  of  the  lowest  caste  are  begin- 
ning to  awaken. 

9.  Religiously  the  outlook  is  encouraging.  Animis- 
tic and  demonistic  beliefs  are  giving  way,  as  a  compari- 
son of  the  last  three  censuses  shows,  and  the  higher 
forms  of  Hinduistic  worship  are  taking  their  place. 
This  is  not  much  of  an  advance,  but  it  proves  the  possi- 
bility of  progress.  During  the  decade  following  1881, 
Hinduism  increased  10.74  per  cent,  Muhammadanism 
10.70  per  cent,  and  Christianity  22.16  per  cent. 

The  Brahmo-Somaj  had  3401  members  four  years 
ago,  mainly  in  Bengal.  The  Arya-Somaj  reported 
39,948  members,  mostly  in  the  Punjab  and  north-west- 
ern India.  Though  so  few,  they  represent  some  of  the 
strongest  elements  in  the  Empire,  and  the  success  which 
has  varyingly  attended  their  efforts  at  reforming  Hindu- 
ism and  some  of  its  attendant  evils  is  encouraging. 
What  the  result  of  these  movements  will  be  in  the  realm 
of  religion  cannot  be  said,  though  m^any  Hindus  are 
calling  for  the  establishment  of  a  National  Religion, 
in  consequence  of  this  agitation.  It  may  prove  success- 
ful if  it  differs  sufificiently  from  the  old,  and  allows  its 
eclecticism  sufficient  freedom.  Sir  A.  Lyall  writes: — 
'Tt  seems  possible  that  the  old  gods  of  Hinduism  will 
die  in  these  new  elements  of  intellectual  light  and  air  as 
quickly  as  a  netful  of  fish  lifted  out  of  the  water,"  and 
this  will  doubtless  be  its  effect  upon  popular  Hinduism. 

The  increasing  influence  of  Indian  Christianity  is  the 
most  hopeful  presage  of  the  future,  and  to  that  the  suc- 
ceeding chapter  will  be  devoted.  Suffice  it  to  add  that 
the  influence  which  the  elements  named  above  have 
already  exerted  upon  the  masses,  and  the  fine  specimens 
of  manhood  which  they  have  produced  are  an  indication 
of  what  ultimate  India  will  be. 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Encyclopaedias:    Same  as  in  chapter  I. 

Bose:    Hindu  Civilization  under  British  Rule,  (1894),  Vol.  I., 
Pp.  LIV.  ff. 


68  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Brown:    Races  of  Mankind,  Vol.  IV.,  Pp.  110-118. 

Butler:    Land  of  the  Veda,  (1872),  Ch.  I.,  IX. 

Church  Missionary  Atlas,  Pt.  II.,  India,  (1887),  Pp.  83,  84. 

Featherman:    Social  History  of  the  Races  of  Mankind,  (1891), 

Pp.  3-197. 
Gracey:    India,  (1884),  Pp.  9-20. 
Hunter:    Brief  History  of  the  Indian  Peoples,  (1892),  Ch.  II. 

The  Indian  Empire,  (1886,  same  as  Vol.  VI.  Imperial  Gaz- 
etteer of  India),  Chs.  III.,  IV. 
Iconographic  Encyclopaedia,  (1885),  Vol.  I.,  Pp.  281-289. 
Johnson:    Oriental  Religions,  India,  (1872),  Pp.  57-83. 
Knox:    A  Winter  in  India  and  Malaysia,  (1891),  Letter  XVI. 
Miiller:    India,— What  it  Can  Teach  Us,  (1883),   Le-ture  II. 
Ridpath:    Great  Races  of  Mankind,  (1893),  Ch.  XLI. 
Rowe:    Every-day  Life  in  India,  (1881),  Ch.  I. 
Storrow:    India,  Pt.  I.,  (1883),  Pp.  12-21. 
Temple:    India  in  1880,  (1882),  Ch.  VIII. 
Thohurn:    India  and  Malaysia,  (1893),  Ch.  II. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CRRISTIAN    MISSIONS    IN    INDIA. 

"Let  me  not  glory  except  in  the  Cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus 

Christ,  who  is  the  true  Messiah  and  God  alone  and  Holy  Ghost." 

— Oldest  Christian  Inscription  in  India. — Seventh  Century. 

Early  Christianity  in  India... 

We  shall  not  pause  to  discuss  the  doubtful  legend  of 
the  (preaching  and  martyrdom  of  the  Apostle  Thomas 
in  India,  nor  the  significance  of  the  scroll  of  the  White 
Jews  of  Cochin  beginning: — "After  the  Second  Temple 
was  destroyed  (which  may  God  speedily  rebuild!)  our 
fathers,  dreading  the  conqueror's  wrath,  departed  from 
Jerusalem,  a  numerous  body  of  men,  women,  priests  and 
Levites,  and  came  into  this  land." 

Doubtless  the  discovery  in  50  A.  D.  by  the  pilot  Hip- 
palus  of  the  monsoon  system  of  winds  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  the  subsequent  development  of  an  ocean 
trade  between  Egypt  and  India,  led  many  Jewish  Chris- 
tians to  settle  in  western  and  southern  India.  In  any 
event,  between  180  and  190  A.  D.,  a  request  from  Indian 
Christians  came  to  Alexandriafor  a  missionary,  and  the 
famous  Pantaenus,  head  of  its  great  Catechetical  School, 
responded.  He  reported  that  they  possessed  the  Ara- 
maic Gospel  of  Matthew,  but  further  details  are  few. 
Other  traces  of  these  Christians  emerge  about  the  time 
of  the  Nicene  Council  in  325.  Later,  the  evangelical  doc- 
trines taught  by  Pantaenus  gave  way  before  the  com- 
promising  Nestorian  views  of  a  Christ  less  than  divine. 
So  popular  did  they  become,  that  Apostolic  Christian- 
ity became  fossilised  into  the  Syrian  Church,  which,  in 
spite  of  heathen  opposition  and  Catholic  persecution, 


70  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

to-day  numbers  200,467,  or  one  out  of  every  eleven  of 
the  Indian  Christians.  The  Syrian  and  Persian  Chris- 
tianity was  possessed  of  a  "faith  so  weak,  a  message  so 
mutilated,  an  intellect  so  darkened,  and  a  life  so  selfish/' 
that  it  exerted  little  leavening  power. 

Romish  Missions... 

Da  Gama's  success  in  rounding  the  Cape,  and  the 
beginning  of  Portuguese  intercourse  with  India  was 
speedily  utilized  by  the  Pope.  The  Nestorian  Chris- 
tians found  there  knew  nothing  of  Papacy,  Transubstan- 
tiation  and  the  adoration  of  the  Virgin,  while  heathen- 
ism furnished  an  untilled  soil  for  the  zealous  monks,  a 
multitude  of  whom  were  soon  upon  the  scene. 

Xavier,  one  of  the  greatest  missionaries  of  our  com- 
mon Christianity,  began  his  labors  at  Goa  in  1541. 
Certain  "unwise  biographers"  of  the  Saint  tell  marvel- 
ous stories  of  his  life  and  work  in  that  land,  but  without 
untruthful  embellishment,  it  was  probably  true  of  him 
as  the  Jesuit  Dubois  says,  "he  was  entirely  disheartened 
by  the  invincible  obstacles  he  everywhere  met  and  left 
the  country  in  disgust."  Notwithstanding,  the  fiery  zeal 
and  tireless  efforts  of  this  man  as  he  sought  to  win  the 
Hindus  are  an  inspiration  to  the  present  day  missionary. 

The  fraud  and  force  so  freely  used  by  Abp.  Menezes, 
and  the  deception  and  falsehood  of  De  Nobili  and  his 
associates,  provoked  the  criticism  of  Protestant  and 
Pope  alike,  as  the  history  of  "the  Malabar  rites"  proves. 
Compromise  had  o'erleaped  itself  and  many  of  their 
practices  were  forbidden.  -During  the  present  century 
a  better  spirit  has  pervaded  Catholicism,  and  it  is  doing 
much  for  India  in  spite  of  some  of  its  methods  and  its 
doctrines.  The  first  on  the  field  and  antagonizing 
heathenism  less  than  Protestantism,  Romanism's  adher- 
ents outnumber  Protestants  almost  two  to  one,  there 
being  1,315,263  Catholics  and  767,433  in  the  Protestant 
community. 


Christian  Missions  in  India.,  71 

Protectant  Beginnings... 

The  Dutch  had  done  an  extensive,  though  superficial 
work  in  Ceylon,  but  in  their  settlements  on  the  mainland 
of  India,  no  Christian  influence  of  any  moment  was 
exerted.  The  same  is  true  of  the  English  East  India 
Company,  and  even  after  the  new  order  of  1698  requir- 
ing them  to  provide  chaplains,  part  of  whose  duty  it 
should  be  "to  instruct  the  Gentoos  who  should  be 
servants  or  slaves  of  the  said  Company,  or  their  agents, 
in  the  Protestant  religion,"  there  was  little  done  for  the 
heathen  population. 

1.  T/ie  Danes.  India's  first  Protestant  missionaries 
were  sent  to  Tranquebar  in  1706  by  Frederick  IV.  of 
Denmark.  They  were  the  two  Pietist  students  from 
Halle,  Ziegenbalg  and  Pliitschau,  both  of  them  gifted 
and  devoted  men.  When,  after  thirteen  years  of  labor, 
Ziegenbalg  fell  asleep  to  the  music  of  his  favorite  hymn, 
"Jesus  my  Confidence,"  he  left  behind  him  a  Tamil  New 
Testament  and  a  good  part  of  the  Old,  a  dictionary, 
schools,  a  seminary  and  355  converts,  besides  numerous 
catechumens.  Other  members  of  this  devoted  band  of 
German  and  Danish  Lutherans  carried  on  the  work 
with  comparatively  little  success  until  in  1826  it  was 
transferred  to  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel.  Had  it  done  no  more  than  produce  Ziegen- 
balg— of  whom  Duff  wrote,  "Certainly  he  was  a  great 
missionary  considering  that  he  was  the  first;  inferior 
to  none,  scarcely  second  to  any  that  followed  him" — and 
Schwartz,  one  of  the  greatest  missionaries  of  any  land 
whom  foreigners  and  natives  alike  loved  and  revered, 
the  Danish  mission  would  have  done  a  noble  work. 
Failure  to  develop  the  native  Church  and  toleration  of 
the  caste  system  robbed  them  of  much  of  their  power, 
notwithstanding  their  laborious  efforts. 

2.  English  chaplains.  The  East  India  Company 
had  partially  obeyed  their  instructions  and  had  provided 
a  few  chaplains  at  principal  points;  yet  these  men  were 
sometimes  like  those  described  by  Lord  Teignmouth  in 
1795: — "Our  clergy  in  Bengal,  with  some  exceptions, 


73  The  Cross  in  tlie  Land  of  tlie  Trident. 

are  not  respectable  characters.  Their  situation  is  ardu- 
ous, considering  tlie  general  relaxation  of  morals,  from 
which  a  black  coat  is  no  security."  Some  of  them,  how- 
ever, were  important  factors  in  India's  early  evangel- 
ization. Among  these  were  David  Brown,  preacher  to 
the  elite  of  Calcutta  society,  who  secured  for  Carey  his 
professorship  in  Fort  William  College;  Claudius  Buch- 
anan whose  "Christian  Researches  in  Asia,"  together 
with  Brown's  plan,  drawn  up  in  1788,  for  a  "Church 
Mission  to  India,'^  gave  birth  to  the  greatest  of  Pro- 
testant missionary  organizations,  the  Church  Mission- 
ary Society;  and  Henry  Marty n  "saint  and  scholar," 
whose  devotion,  fervid  zeal,  and  deep  spirituality  have 
led  as  many  to  become  missionaries  as  Brainerd's  burn- 
ing life. 

3.  The  Sera^npore  Triad.  The  beginnings  of  Prot- 
estant missions  were  already  made,  but  Carey  is  often 
called  the  Father  of  the  Movement.  This  shoemaker, 
preacher,  professor,  and  Christian  Orientalist  not  only 
stirred  up  a  handful  of  Baptists  to  establish  the  first 
English  foreign  missionary  society,  but  he  influenced 
other  denominations  as  well,  so  that  the  close  of  the 
century  saw  additional  organizations  enter  upon  the 
work,  notably  the  London  and  Church  Missionary  Soci- 
eties. His  linguistic  gifts  enabled  him  to  translate 
the  Bible  in  part  or  wholly  into  twenty-four  Indian 
languages  or  dialects,  and  to  prepare  numerous  gram- 
mars and  dictionaries  in  the  Sanskrit,  Marathi,  Ben- 
gali, Punjabi,  and  Telugu  dialects.  He  wrote  articles 
also  on  the  natural  history  and  botany  of  India,  besides 
carrying  on  the  educational  and  evangelistic  work, 
which,  with  other  duties,  filled  eighteen  hours  a  day  for 
the  forty-one  years  of  his  life  in  India. 

Joshua  Marshman,  the  English  weaver  and  Indefatiga- 
ble student,  was  hardly  less  remarkable  than  his  famous 
colleague.  He  and  his  wife  established  Immediately 
two  boarding  schools  for  boys  and  girls,  the  Income  of 
which  amply  supported  them,  and  likewise  began  ver- 
nacular school  work.  Not  content  with  confining  his 
efforts  to  India,  he  became  an  excellent  Chinese  scholar 


CJiristian  Missions  in  India.,  73 

and  translated  into  English  'The  Works  of  Confucius." 
More  important  still,  he  gave  to  the  Chinese,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Joannes  Lassar,  their  first  version  of  the  bible. 
The  college,  established  in  1818,  was  largely  under  his 
care,  while  he  long  edited  T/ie  Friend  of  India,  one  of 
the  country's  best  periodicals. 

George  Smith,  LL.  D.,  thus  describes  the  remalnmg 
member  of  the  \x\2.A\—''Ward,  editor  and  printer,  when 
Carey  took  up  the  mantle  of  Schwartz,  declared  God's 
revelation  of  Jesus  Christ,  printed,  preached  and  taught 
so  as  to  work  a  supernatural  change  in  the  faith  and  Ufe 
of  each  honest  receiver  under  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  to  be  the  only  effectual  means  of  the  conversion  of 
India.  'With  a  Bible  and  a  press,'  were  his  first  words, 
'posterity  will  see  that  a  missionary  will  not  labor  in 
vain  even  in  India.'" 

Financially  the  trio  did  what  no  three  men  since  have 
done,  contributed  by  their  efforts  to  the  cause  of  mis- 
sions and  India's  elevation  nearly  half  a  million  dollars; 
and  this  when  the  brotherhood  of  three  families  lived  at 
the  same  table  at  a  cost  of  $500  a  year.  The  humble, 
busy  life  of  these  men  living  after  an  adapted  Moravian 
plan,  is  worthy  of  study,  if  not  of  thoughtless  imitation. 
They  had  sought  to  win  the  higher  classes  as  well  as  the 
lowest,  and  if  the  results  were  not  as  great  as  could  be 
desired,  the  value  o\  tReir  literary  labors  to  all  India 
should  not  be  forgotten. 

4.  Early  American  Re-enforcements .  A  handful  of 
American  students  travailing  together  in  prayer  beside 
the  Williamstown  haystack  had  stirred  the  American 
churches  to  missionary  activity,  and  in  181 2  the  first 
company  landed  in  India.  These  early  Volunteers  were 
destined  to  do  an  important  work.  Judson,  in  some 
respects  the  greatest  missionary  America  has  produced, 
was  driven  by  the  East  India  Company  to  Burma  where 
those  wonderful  years  of  intellectual  activity  and  Gospel 
propagation  were  spent.  Gordon  Hall  and  Nott  were 
driven  to  Bombay  and  thus  began  a  work  in  fhe  west 
of  India.  Hall,  valedictorian  at  Williams'  College, 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  Marathi,  preached  in 


74  fhe  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 

temples  and  bazaars  a  full  Gospel,  and  after  thirteen 
years'  service  died  of  cholera  as  a  result  of  ministering 
to  such  patients.  His  dying  words,  thrice  repeated, 
"Glory  to  Thee,  O  God!"  were  the  motto  of  his  earnest 
life  and  the  incentive  which  has  led  a  multitude  of  his 
fellow  countrymen  of  differing  creeds  to  give  their  lives 
to  India. 

Some  Later  Factors... 

By  this  time  nearly  every  form  of  work  had  been  set 
in  motion.  There  were,  however,  important  features 
which  had  not  yet  been  emphasized. 

1.  Medical  work.  The  East  India  Company's  sur- 
geons, Boughton  and  Hamilton,  had  early  secured  for 
.the  Company  additions  to  their  territory  and  influence 
by  cures  wrought  among  the  ruling  families.  John 
Thomas  who  led  Carey  to  India,  instead  of  allowing  him 
to  go  to  Tahiti,  was  a  surgeon  and  had  done  mission- 
ary work  in  Bengal  some  three  years  before  he  went  out 
as  Carey's  colleague.  Yet  it  was  not  until  later  in  the 
present  century  that  the  art  of  healing  became  a  regular 
feature  of  missionary  work.  India's  greatest  medical 
need  is  among  her  women,  and  America  has  the  dis- 
tinction of  sending  to  them  their  first  woman  physician, 
— indeed  the  first  woman  physician  sent  to  any  foreign 
missionary  field, — Dr.  C.  A.  Swain,  who  began  her 
labors  there  nearly  thirty  years  since.  Our  coun- 
try is  doing  more  for  Hindu  women's  sicknesses  than 
any  other  land;  and  for  men,  physicians  like  Dr.  John 
Scudder,  and  others  have  done  an  important  service. 

2.  Woman's  Work.  Hannah  Marshman  had  done 
what  she  could  for  Bengali  girls  and  women,  but  to 
Miss  Cooke  of  the  Church  Missionary  Society  belongs 
the  honor  of  becoming  in  1821  the  John  the  Baptist  to 
the  Zanana  Missions    of    to-day.    In     1834    the    first 

■  Zanana  Society  in  existence  was  established.'  'The 
Society  for  promoting  Female  Education  in  the  East," 
and  a  year  later  the  homes  of  higher  class  women  in 
India  began  to  be  entered  by  this  beneficent  agency. 


christian  Missions  in  India..  tS 

3.  The  Scotch  Triumvirate.  While  John  Wilson  was 
almost  as  remarkable  an  Orientalist  as  Carey,  his  dis- 
tinctive work  and  that  of  his  countrymen,  Alexander 
Duff  and  John  Anderson,  was  that  of  education.  The 
Serampore  triad  had  believed  that  the  vernaculars  or 
Sanskrit  were  the  only  proper  media  for  imparting 
instruction  in  Western  learning.  They  had  also  been 
conservative  about  teaching  Christianity  in  educational 
work.  Z^?/^  arrived  at  Calcutta  in  1830  with  the  firm 
conviction  that  education  should  be  first  of  all  thor- 
oughly biblical,  and  that  the  English  tongue  should  be 
used  for  Western  science  instruction.  In  spite  of  the 
dreary  prophecies  of  failure,  his  group  of  five  students 
studying  the  first  day  under  a  banyan  tree,  was  followed 
by  three  hundred  other  applicants  before  the  week  was 
out,  and  his  college  soon  numbered  one  thousand 
students.  A  Church  Missionary  Society  official  writes, 
— "Dr.  Duff's  converts,  in  particular,  and  those  whom 
they  have  influenced,  have  been  the  leaders  of  native 
Christendom  ever  since.  Work  similar  to  his,  the  win- 
ning for  Christ  of  Hindus  of  the  higher  castes  by 
means  of  Educational  Missions,  was  begun  in  the  Presi- 
dency cities  of  Bombay  and  Madras,  not  long  after- 
wards, by  two  other  Scotch  missionaries,  John  Wilson 
and  John  Anderson.^'  Education  thus  became  revolu- 
tionized, and  Duff's  theory  practically  rules  to-day, 
though  there  are  few  professors  now  of  whom  it  may  be 
said,  "his  reading  and  exposition  of  the  English  Bible 
lesson  were  daily  cannon  shots  at  the  old  faiths  of 
India."  In  Government  institutions  the  Bible  has  been 
excluded. 

4.  The  Mutiny  of  1857  was  a  moment  in  the  mis- 
sionary work  of  North  India  of  great  importance.  It 
is  true  that  1500  white  Christians  were  butchered, 
including  thirty-seven  missionaries,  chaplains  and  their 
families,  to  say  nothing  of  native  believers;  yet  it  tested 
as  nothing  else  could,  the  sincerity  of  the  converts'  faith, 
and  aroused  in  Christian  lands  an  interest  in  India  that 
had  not  hitherto  been  known.  Moreover,  the  mutiny 
brought  to  an  end  the  rule  of  the  East  India  Company, 


76  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

and  in  1858  Victoria  announced  the  fact  to  the  Indian 
people  in  a  proclamation  which  has  been  called  ^the  be- 
ginning of  the  history  of  Christian  India."  Old  mission- 
ary organizations  tooT^.  on  a  stronger  life  and  new 
ones  sent  in  from  Europe  and  America  their  first  volun- 
teers. 

5.  Mass  movements— ^o  called — have  been  a  note- 
worthy feature  of  the  work  in  recent  decades.  Forty- 
two  years  ago,  hard-headed  Sir  C.  Trevelyan  prophe- 
sied thus: — "Many  persons  mistake  the  way  in  which 
the  conversion  of  India  will  be  brought  about.  I  believe 
it  will  take  place  at  last  wholesale,  just  as  our  own  ances*- 
tors  were  converted.  The  country  will  have  Christian 
instruction  infused  into  it  in  every  way  by  direct  mis^ 
sionary  education,  and  indirectly  by  books  of  various 
sorts,  through  the  public  papers,  through  conversa- 
tion with  Europeans,  and  in  all  the  conceivable  ways  in 
which  knowledge  is  communicated.  Then  at  last  when 
society  is  completely  saturated  with  Christian  knowl- 
edge, and  public  opinion  has  taken  a  decided  turn  that 
way,  they  will  come  over  by  thousands."  Sherring 
add^: — 'It  is,  moreover,  in  harmony  with  the  Indian 
character,  and  the  anticipation  of  those  who  know  it 
well,  that  a  people  so  timid,  so  singularly  bound 
together  by  caste  and  social  usages,  and  so  gregarious, 
will  finally  move  in  masses  from  heathenism  to  Chris- 
tianity." 

These  predictions  have  been  realized  to  a  slight 
degree.  Thus  in  the  Tinnevelli  field  the  Episcopalians, 
building  on  the  foundations  of  Ziegenbalg  and  Schwartz, 
have  seen,  according  to  Dr.  Gracey  ''a  hundred  thou- 
sand Shanars,  a  devil  worshiping  tribe,  accept  Chris- 
tianity, and  their  revival  meetings  have  been  attended 
with  remarkable  physical  phenomena,  such  as  whip- 
like cracking  of  the  hair,  and  violent  jerkings  similar  to 
those  witnessed  in  earlier  times  at  camp  meetings  in 
Kentucky."  Sherring  tells  of  the  wonderful  Lutheran 
work,  and  that  of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  Kols  in  Chota  Nagpore  where,  in 
1 86 1,  there  were  but  2400  converts,  while  ten  years  laten 


Christian  Missions  in  India.  77 

they  numbered  20,y2y.  Every  American  Baptist  has 
heard  the  wonderful  story  of  the  "Lone  Star  Mission," 
which  after  thirty  years  of  labor  had  only  twenty-five 
living  Telugu  converts.  Better  results  were  secured 
during  the  following  twenty-three  years,  and  then  came 
the  outpouring.  Between  July  6th  and  i6th,  8691  were 
baptized!  The  present  success  of  the  Methodists  under 
Bishop  Thoburn  is  more  remarkable  still,  the  only  limit 
seeming  to  be  that  imposed  by  the  impossibility  of 
instructing  and  building  up  the  thousands  who  wish  to 
enter  the  church. 

Where  sufficient  care  is  exercised,  these  movements 
are  a  blessing;  but  as  the  records  of  the  Bombay  Confer- 
ence in  1892-93  show,  the  utmost  diligence  and  wisdom 
are  requisite  under  such  conditions,  or  the  evils  of 
Mediaeval  Christianity  will  recur. 

The  Forces  In  the  Field... 

Where  are  the  Christians  of  India  located?  A 
glance  at  its  missionary  geography  will  show  that  about 
two-thirds  of  those  who  acknowledge  the  name  of  Christ 
are  in  the  British  Provinces  of  Madras  and  Coorg  and 
in  the  Madras  Native  States.  Bengal  and  its  native 
states  stand  next  with  192,471  Christians,  while  Bombay 
and  its  feudatory  states  have  170,651  Christian  adher- 
ents. Other  provinces  have  smaller  numbers,  so  that 
in  general  it  may  be  said  that  Christianity  is  found 
mainly  in  the  southern  half  of  the  Empire,  Burma  not 
being  considered.  Not  all  of  these,  of  course,  are  com- 
municants, and  of  the  communicants,  the  Catholic  and 
Syrian  Christians  are  in  the  majority. 

I.  International  representation.  According  to  the 
tables  in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Missions  (1890),  the 
Christian  lands  having  missionaries  in  India,  including 
Burma,  were  represented  as  follows : 

America, 753  missionaries,or  47.1  per  cent. 

British  Isles, 610  missionaries,  or  38.2  per  cent. 

Germany, 177  missionaries,  or  ii.i  per  cent. 

Denmark, 33  missionaries,  or    2.1  per  cent. 

Sweden, 23  missionaries,  or    1.5  per  cent. 


78  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

The  1596  missionaries  thus  accounted  for  do  not  con- 
stitute the  entire  number  at  that  time,  as  statistics  were 
not  complete;  much  less  do  they  state  the  truth  to-day. 
Analyzing  the  above  total,  we  find  that  824  were 
ordained  men,  69  laymen,  460  were  the  wives  of  mission- 
aries, and  243  were  unmarried  ladies. 

2.  Native  Workers.  From  the  same  tables  we  learn 
that  the  strong  right  arm  of  missionary  effort,  its  native 
agency,  numbered  16,176,  of  whom  912  were  ordained, 
6695  were  teachers,  and  8569  aided  in  other  capacities. 
The  tendency  "of  all  the  Societies,  especially  the  Amer- 
ican, is  to  solve  the  question  of  cheap  missions  by 
largely  increasing  the  number  of  native  catechists  placed 
under  each  white  overseer.''  Much  is  to  be  done  still  in 
the  way  of  training  thoroughly  these  helpers,  especially 
where  masses  are  coming  into  the  church;  but  observers 
on  the  ground  testify  to  the  great  advance  making  along 
this  line. 

3.  Native  Christians.  These  are  almost  wholly  from 
the  lower  castes,  though  some  Brahmans  have  been  con- 
verted and  have  served  the  cause  nobly.  This  has  been 
especially  true  in  the  higher  educational  work  of  Duff 
and  others.  Unlike  Japan,  where  the  Christian  move- 
ment began  with  the  higher  Samurai  class,  India  is 
being  affected  in  its  lowest  strata  first.  Though 
Muhammedan  converts  are  protected  in  the  Queen's 
dominions.  Dr.  Smith  says  that  "even  in  tolerant  Brit- 
ish India  the  Muhammedans  are  still  the  forlorn  hope  of 
the  missionary  campaign!" 

According  to  the  statistical  tables  of  Protestant  Mis- 
sions in  India,  published  in  1892  at  Calcutta,  there  were 
559,661  Protestant  Christians  in  India  proper,  of  which 
number  182,722  were  communicants.  Some  of  them 
were  undoubtedly  "rice  Christians,"  but  yearly  the. type 
of  Christianity  is  improving,  and  when  caste  and'  relig- 
ious environment  is  considered,  one  cannot  but  thank 
God  and  take  courage. 

4.  Methods  are  discussed  In  the  following  chapter; 
yet  it  ought  here  to  be  said  that  among  the  forces  at 
work  are  the  schools  with  299,051  under  missionary 


Christian  Missions  in  India.,  "79 

instruction;  Sunday  schools,  with  135,566  Hindu  pupils; 
a  medical  work,  employing  97  foreign  and  168  native 
medical  missionaries,  with  166  hospitals  and  dispensa- 
ries; while  40,513  zananas  are  open  to  the  worker.  The 
power  of  the  Christian  press  of  India  is  also  a  decided 
force,  though  its  statistics  cannot  be  definitely  given. 

5.  Some  comparisons  are  worthy  of  note,  and  the 
following  taken  from  Smith's  ''Conversion  of  India" 
and  applying  to  India  proper  are  given: — 

In  1811.  In  1890. 

Foreign  missionaries,   men, 488  986 

Women  workers,  foreign  and  Eurasian,  370  711 

Native  Christian  workers,  men, 2,210  4,288 

women,.. 837  3,278 

Native  Protestant  Christians, 224,161  559,66i 

"                   "           communicants, 52,813  182,722 

"The  rate  of  increase  in  the  number  of  native  Chris- 
tians between  185 1  and  1861  was  53  per  cent.  In  the 
next  decade  it  rose  to  61  per  cent,  and  in  that  from  1871 
to  1 88 1  it  was  86  per  cent.  From  1881  to  1890  it  was 
532  P^^  c^i^t  for  nine  years." 

In  spite  of  this  boasted  increase,  Dr.  John  Robson  is 
quoted  by  Smith  as  estimating,  from  somewhat  different 
data,  that  "the  Protestant  Church  would  absorb  the  whole 
population  of  India  about  the  middle  of  the  twenty-first 
century,"  if  Christians  do  not  multiply  more  than  they 
have  their  forces.  There  was  in  India  in  1893,  Smith 
estimated,  "one  missionary — man  or  woman — to  about 
167,000  of  the  population.  The  number  of  ordained 
men  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  specially  trained  civil 
servants  who  rule  and  administer  the  country.  The 
number  of  men  and  women  together  is  less  than  half  the 
British  officers  who  command  the  native  troops ;  is  only 
a  fourth  of  the  British  military  garrisons  which  keep  the 
peace  of  southern  Asia." 

6.  Opposing  forces.  One  should  consider  the  enemy's 
forces  in  such  a  battle.  Some  of  them  have  already  been 
mentioned,  but  will  be  named  with  the  others. 

(i)  The  missionary's  own  relation  to  a  land  where 
he  is  an  exotic,  and  to  a  people  who  are  suspicious  of 
him,  if,  indeed,  he  is  not  hated,  is  a  great  obstacle. 


80  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

(2)  The  enormous  disparity  of  numbers  militates 
against  Christianity  in  a  land  where  numbers  are  an 
argument  and  the  pressure  of  a  majority  is  so  great. 

(3)  A  Hindu's  tenacity  to  ''custom,"  which  counts 
more  than  reason,  and  to  a  religion  which  panders  to 
his  lower  nature  prevents  multitudes  from  becoming 
Christians. 

(4)  Pliability  is  hardly  less  an  enemy  to  Christianity. 
A  Brahman  can  serve  a  Christian  master  and  at  the 
same  time  use  his  position  against  Christians.  They 
can  adapt  their  religion  to  any  purpose,  and  in  some  cases 
they  are  willing  to  construct  a  conglomerate  religion 
which  satisfies  and  prevents  its  holder  from  accepting 
Christ. 

(5)  The  condition  of  women,  especially  among  the 
higher  classes,  is  such  that  they  are  not  intellectually 
able  to  comprehend  readily  the  truths  of  Christianity  and 
thus  grow  through  the  written  Record  of  our  religion. 
The  wife's  servitude  to  husband  or  mother-in-law  often 
keeps  her  from  learning  the  truth. 

(6)  Caste  is  perhaps  the  greatest  obstacle  of  all,  as  has 
been  shown. 

(7)  The  patriarchal  system  which,  among  the  better 
classes,  brings  all  the  descendants  into  one  common 
family,  places  great  power  in  the  hands  of  its  leaders, 
and  so  the  younger  ones  often  do  not  dare  accept  the 
truth. 

(8)  The  dependence  upon  land-owners  and  money- 
lenders hostile  to  Christianity,  amounting  in  some  cases 
to  virtual  slavery,  has  prevented  many  of  the  poorest 
from  becoming  Christians. 

(9)  While  the  railway  does  something  toward  break- 
ing down  oaste,  it  enables  multitudes,  who  could  not 
otherwise  do  so,  to  attend  the  great  religious  gatherings, 
thus  fostering  their  heathen  views. 

(10)  The  Press  is  likewise  a  two-edged  sword,  hinder- 
ing as  well  as  aiding  missions.  Of  the  many  native 
papers  all  but  about  six  are  opposed  to  Clinstianity, 
some  of  them  most  bitterly. 

(11)  Theosophy  may  be  "coals  to  an  Indian JN^ew- 


Christian  Missions  in  India..  81 

castle,"  in  Bishop  Hurst's  phrase,  but  they  are  neverthe- 
less coals  that  have  burned  some  whom  the  Christian 
religion  might  have  reached. 

(12)  Occidental  scepticism  is  a  strong  foe  to  con- 
tend with  in  scholastic  centers,  and  with  those  young 
men,  destined  to  be  influential,  who  turn  to  such  discus- 
sions in  the  reaction    against  hereditary  faiths. 

In  spite  of  these  and  other  unmentioned  obstacles 
the  Christian  missionary  stands  unmoved  trusting  in  the 
word  of  Jehovah  to  Zerubbabel,  *'Not  by  an  army,  nor 
by  power,  but  by  my  spirit,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts. 
Who  art  thou,  O  great  mountain?  before  Zerubbabel 
thou  s'halt  become  a  plain ;  and  he  shall  bring  forth  tHe 
headstone  with  shoutings  of  Grace,  grace,  unto  it." 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Encyclopaedia:    See  articles  in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  Missions 

under  the  names  of  different  districts,  races  and  missionary 

societies. 
Bainhrldge:    Around  the  World  Tour  of  Christian  Missions, 

(1882),  Ch.  XIX. 
Barry:    England's  Mission  to  India,  (1895). 
Chaplin:    Our  Gold  Mine,  (1892),  Ch.  XIV. 
Church  Missionary  Atlas,  Pt.  II.,  India,  (1887),  Pp.  95-103. 
Dennis:    Foreign  Missions  after  a  Century,   (1893),   Lecture? 

III.,  V. 
Downey:    History  of  the  Telugu   Mission,    (1893),    Chs.   IV., 

IX.,  X.,  XI. 
Feudge:    India,  (1881),  Ch.  X. 
Gracey:    India,  (1884),  Pp.  103-174. 

Hurst:  Indika,  (1891),  Chs.  XLVIL,  XLVIII,  LI.,  LIL 
Lawrence:  Modern  Missions  in  the  East,  (1895),  Ch.  IV. 
Leonard:    A   Hundred  Years  of  Missions,   (1895),   Chs.   IX., 

XIII. 
Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Jan.  1889,  Pp.  14-20.     Oct. 

1889,  Pp.  729-733.    Apr.  1891,  Pp.  241-249.    Apr.  1892,  Pp. 

243-247.     Apr.    1892,    Pp.   247-256.     May    1892,    Pp.    340-348. 

May  1892,  Pp.  321-326.    June  1892,  Pp.  416-421.    July  1892, 


82  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

Pp.  499-504.    July  1893,  Pp.  517-523.    --ug.  1893,  Pp.  595-601. 

Nov.  1893,  Pp.  825-830.     Mar.  1894,  Pp.  173-179.    Apr.  1894, 

Pp.  247-254.     Sept.   1894,   Pp.  662-667.    Jan.    1895,   Pp.   4-8. 

Mar.  1895,  Pp.  203-208.    Apr.  1895,  Pp.  267-271. 
Macleod:    Peeps  at  the  Far  East,  (1871),  Ch.  XL 
Pierson:    Miracles  of  Missions,  (1891),  Ch.  III. 
RobUns:    Handbook  of  India,  (1883),  Ch.  VI. 
Sherring:    The  History  of  Protestant  Missions  in  India,  (1884), 

especially  chapter  I. 
Smith:    The  Conversion  of  India,  (1893),  Chs.  II.,-VII. 

Short  History  of  Missions,  (1890),  Pp.  I39-I45,  156-167. 
morrow:    India,  Pt.  II.,  (1883),  Pp.  7-29. 
Temple:    India  in  1880,  (1882),  Ch.  IX. 

Oriental  Experiences,  (1883),  Chs.  VII.,  VIII. 
Thohurn:    India  and  Malaysia,  (1893),  Chs.  XI.-XV. 
Thompson:    Protestant  Missions,  (1894),  Chs.  II.,  VII.,  VHL, 

IX. 
Vanguard  of  the  Christian  Army,  Pp.  3-74. 
Yaughan:    The  Trident,  the   Crescent  and  the   Cross,   (1876), 

Ch.  X. 
Walsh:    Modern  Heroes  of  Mission  Fields,  (1892),  Chs.  I.,  II. 
Yonge:    Pioneers  and  Founders,  (1890),  Chs.   HI.,  IV.,  V. 
Young:    Modern     Missions:     Their    Trials    and     Triumphs, 

(1884),  Pp.  1-78. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PRESENT  PHASES  OF  MISSIONARY  WORK.         ; 

"A  young  missionary  went  out  and  asked  an  old  missionary 
how  he  was  to  do  his  work.  He  said,  'In  any  way.'  *  *  *  * 
Now,  every  man  looks  at  his  own  position  in  his  own  way, 
but  I  will  tell  you  what  this  missionary  to  India  understands  to 
be  the  Gospel.  It  is  to  make  God  seem  great  and  good  and 
near." — R.  A.  Hume,  D.  D.,  "Inter-Seminary  Alliance  Report, 
1893." 

The  608  pages  of  Dr.  Murdoch's  extremely  valuable 
"Indian  Missionary  Manual"  are  largely  given  to  a  de- 
scription of  the  various  methods  of  work  employed  in 
that  Empire.  The  same  is  true  of  the  two  volumes  of 
the  Bombay  Decennial  Conference  Report  of  1892-93. 
Very  Httle,  therefore,  of  all  that  might  be  written  can  be 
given  within  the  limits  of  a  few  pages.  The  scheme  of 
work  found  in  the  "Open  Letter  to  the  Churches,"  pre- 
pared six  years  since  by  the  Madras  Missionary  Con- 
ference, will  here  be  followed. 

flission  Work  among  Children... 

This  line  of  effort  is  strategic,  beginning  as  it  does 
with  the  impressionable  years  of  childhood.  Time  is  also 
gained,  as  the  workers  who  have  occasion  to  instruct 
the  stupid  ones  coming  into  the  church  in  middle  life 
so  well  know.  The  destructive  work  which  needs  doing 
in  the  case  of  adults,  is  likewise  largely  avoided  in  la- 
boring for  children. 

I.  Day  schools  for  boys  and  girls  are  in  some  cases 
separate;  in  others  mixed.  The  former  plan  is  often 
preferred  when  there  is  a  small  Christian  constituency. 


84  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Mixed  schools,  where  feasible,  are  more  economical  and 
are  better  able  to  meet  the  wide  need  of  the  masses.  As 
girls  often  require  an  escort,  less  trouble  is  occasioned 
where  brothers  and  sisters  can  go  together. 

Vernacular  schools  are  most  dsirable,  unless  there  is 
an  attempt  made  to  reach  the  better  classes.  In  that 
case,  English  instruction  attracts  and  holds  the  pupils 
more  than  if  it  were  in  the  vernacular. 

The  plan,  formerly  quite  common,  of  paying  a  small 
sum  to  secure  the  attendance  of  pupils  is  regarded  by 
most  missionaries  as  of   doubtful  expediency. 

The  difhculties  besetting  the  overseer  of  lower  schools 
are  manifold,  but  have  to  do  very  largely  with  incom- 
petent teachers.  The  much  needed  increase  of  normal 
institutions  and  the  graduated  payment  of  teachers  ac- 
cording to  the  value  of  work  done  as  evidenced  by  ex- 
aminations, are  helping  forward  the  movement. 

2.  Sunday  Schools,  outside  the  English  churches  in 
large  cities,  were  practically  unknown  30  years  ago,  and 
such  as  existed  were  of  an  antiquated  type.  Hindu  and 
Muhammadan  boys,  and  much  more  the  girls,  were 
afraid  of  a  place  of  Christian  worship,  and  so  would  not 
come.  They  can  be  won  by  taking  the  school  to  them, 
i.  e.,  by  going  into  their  midst,  and  marking  out  parallel 
lines  on  the  ground  with  aisles  appropriately  placed, 
thus  enabling  the  children  to  be  seated  in  an  orderly 
way.  The  lively  singing  and  other  exercises  so  attract 
them  that  the  Sunday-school  idea  soon  takes  root.  The 
use  of  Scripture  cards  helps  to  overcome  prejudice  and 
much  good  is  done  to  children  in  this  way. 

3.  The  young  people's  societies^  especially  the  Y.  P. 
S.  C.  E.  and  the  Epworth  League,  are  rapidly  spreading 
in  India,  and  while  they  do  not  affect  the  children  so 
much  as  the  older  ones,  boys  and  girls  are  being  won 
to  Christ  by  this  means.  Perhaps  the  best  work  that 
can  be  accomplished  by  these  societies  for  those  with- 
out their  membership  can  be  done  for  children.  Every 
missionary  should  be  prepared  to  carry  on  this  form  of 
work,  though  it  is  not  included  in  the  Madras  list  which 
we  are  following. 


Present  Phases  of  Missionary  Work.  85 

Work  among  Young  flen... 

As  the  hope  of  India  hes  largely  in  this  class,  and  as 
there  are  three-fourths  as  many  of  them  as  there  are  in- 
habitants in  the  United  States,  this  department  of  effort 
is  very  important. 

I.  Higher  education  in  schools  and  colleges.  There 
were  in  1891  in  the  various  colleges  of  India  15,958 
young  men,  besides  the  19,188  who  were  receiving  spe- 
cial education  in  technical,  medical,  and  industrial 
lines.  A  comparatively  small  proportion  of  these  was 
instructed  by  missionaries,  but  those  who  are  so  edu- 
cated are  in  a  position  to  know  the  power  of  Christian- 
ity as  it  is  lived  by  teachers  and  professors.  The  ab- 
straction from  their  home  environment  in  boarding  in- 
stitutions has  proven  a  no  less  helpful  feature  of  the 
work. 

Some  teachers  complain  that  where  too  much  is  pro- 
vided at  mission  expense  laziness  and  dependence  is 
fostered  unlesss  checked  by  labor  of  some  sort.  In- 
dustrial education  is  yearly  growin-g  in  favor  and  the 
wholesome  impetus  thus  given  to  manual  labor  is  of 
great  value  to  the  future  of  Christianity. 

English  is  largely  used  in  such  schools,  and  is  the 
avenue  not  only  to  Governmeuit  position,  but  also 
opens  up  to  the  student  a  field  of  religious  and  other 
literature  which  is  of  the  utmost  helpfulness.  While  the 
University  Examinations,  toward  which  many  Christians 
look,  do  not  take  into  account  the  Bible,  thus  discourag- 
ing its  study,  most  Christian  institutions  regard  the  use 
of  English  as  a  means  of  evangelization  and  conversion, 
and  the  only  way  of  approach  to  some  desirable  young 
men. 

2.  Bible  classes  for  young  men  are  possible  every- 
where, though  much  patience  is  often  required  to  build 
one  up.  While  no  such  marvelous  results  have  fol- 
lowed the  formation  of  such  classes  as  came  to  Japan 
from  the  famous  Kumamoto  Band  of  Captain  Jaynes, 
it  is  an  agency  well  worthy  of  cultivation. 

3.  Special  English  addresses  to  young  men  must  nee- 


86  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

essarily  be  given  in  large  centers  where  a  considerable 
English  speaking  population  is  found.  While  it  might 
most  appropriately  be  done  in  connection  with  the  Y. 
M.  C.  A.,  in  any  city  where  visiting  clergymen  or  Chris- 
tian workers,  like  Dr.  Pentecost  and  John  McNeil, 
might  be,  such  efforts  could  not  but  be  fruitful.  In  any 
case  English  addresses  are  attractive  to  natives  who  are 
studying  our  language. 

Mission  Work  among  the  flasses... 

India  differs  from  some  countries,  especially  China, 
in  the  advantages  and  difhculties  of  approach  to  the 
masses  which  its  missionaries  experience. 

1.  Evangelistic  preaching  in  streets  and  halls  is  prac- 
ticed in  almost  all  Missions.  Halls  are  not  as  common 
nor  as  effectively  used  as  in  China,  but  where  employed 
they  are  found  to  be  less  noisy  and  hence  better  atten- 
tion is  given  than  in  the  street,  while  the  seats  or  mats 
are  an  inducement  to  remain  longer.  Evening  services 
can  be  held  and  with  a  good  attendance,  while  the  hall 
may  be  utilized  as  a  reading  and  bocik-room  by  day. 
Often  the  Hindus  will  Hsten  in  a  verandah  more  readily 
than  enter  a  hall. 

Street  preaching  is  more  fruitful  away  from  the  noise 
and  bustle  of  bazaars,  though  quieter  streets  furnish  a 
smaller  audience.  If  possessed  of  an  animated  deliv- 
ery and  a  well  stored  mind,  a  good  command  of  the 
vernacular,  ability  to  meet  the  varying  moods  of  an 
audience,  and  a  proper  dependence  upon  God,  much 
good  can  be  accomplished.  Rev.  Dr.  H.  M.  Scudder's 
thirteen  Bazaar  Books,  translated  from  the  Tamil,  are 
worthy  the  study  of  those  who  are  to  engage  in  this 
work. 

2.  Touring  through  circles  of  villages  and  to  places 
where  Hindu  festivals  are  held,  is  an  unrivaled  means 
of  disseminating  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  truth. 
The  multitudes  are  reached  more  numerously  at  festi- 
vals, but  the  heathen  ceremonies  and  excitement  of  such 
occasions  usually  prevent  the  seed  from  entering  the 


Present  Phases  of'  Missionary  Work.  87 

soil.  In  the  quiet  of  villages  with  the  opportunity  which 
repeated  itinerations  furnish  of  following  up  the  work 
of  previous  visits,  the  results  are  very  encouraging. 
Schools,  a  teacher  or  helper,'  and  ultimately  a  native 
Church  follow  in  the  wake  of  such  labors. 

3.  House  to  house  visitation  can  be  done  in  most 
parts  of  the  country,  the  excuse  for  such  visits  in  a 
strange  community  being  the  announcement  of  a  later 
preaching  service  or  stereopticon  exhibition.  Visiting 
at  the  homes  of  the  educated  or  oi  the  officials  is  an  im- 
portant branch  of  work,  for  which,  however,  careful  ob- 
servance of  native  etiquette  and  great  tact  are  requi- 
site. 

v'Vlission  Work  among  Women... 

Home  visitation  can  be  engaged  in  more  naturally 
by  v/omen  than  by  men,  especially  if  it  is  desired  to 
reach  the  women. 

1.  Zanana  teaching  was  being  done  five  years  ago 
for  32,659  pupils  living  at  their  homes.  The  occupants 
of  these  better  homes  are  to  be  pitied  more  than  those 
in  the  homes  of  the  poor.  Shut  in  for  months  or 
years  from  the  outside  world,  with  polygamy  to  cause 
endless  pain,  these  women  and  girls  look  upon  the  za- 
nana missionary  as  an  angel  from  heaven  oftentimes. 
Many  of  them  prove  apt  pupils  and  not  a  few  become 
obedient  to  the  truth.  If  Dr.  Mullen's  advice  to  use 
"caution  without  compromise"  is  heeded,  even  the  most 
suspicious  may  become  willing  learners.  Going  as 
teachers,  our  ladies  are  relieved  of  the  tedium  of  wasting 
time  on  ordinary  visiting  topics.  Many  zanana  workers 
induce  unwillingones  to  studybypromisingtoteachthem 
fancy  work  after  the  first  book  has  been  finished.  Ap- 
parently this  is  the  only  agency,  except  medicine,  which 
can  reach  the  wives  of  men  of  wealth  or  standing. 

2.  Special  Evangelistic  meetings  for  women  may  re- 
sult from  zanana  teaching.  Several  families  living  near 
together  can  sometimes  be  induced  to  meet  for  a  com- 
mon school  and  the  evangeHstic  meeting  be  cautiously 


88  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

introduced.       Among  the  poor    women,     evangelistic 
meetings  are  easily  arranged  for. 

Miss  Greenfield's  fervid  appeal  for  such  effort,  as  given, 
in  the  Calcutta  Conference  Report,  is  worth  quoting 
from: — "By  all  the  solemnity  of  your  first  consecration 
vows,  I  implore  you,  whatever  be  your  special  branch 
of  labor,  in  school  or  zanana,  or  hospital  or  dispensary, 
to  give  some  portion  at  least  of  your  time  to  purely 
evangelistic  work.  Learn  the  vernacular  of  the  poor  and 
then  go  out  into  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  city  and 
compel  them  to  come  in.  Go  out  to  the  poor  outcasts 
and  tell  them  of  a  Burden-bearer  for  them.  Go  out  into 
the  villages,  and  as  the  women  flock  around,  tell  them 
in  song  and  in  speech  of  the  love  of  Jesus.  Go  out  into 
the  ?fie/as  and  festivals  and  lay  hold  of  the  women  there, 
and  tell  them  of  the  water  c^  life  and  the  blood  of  Christ 
that  can  cleanse  their  polluted  hearts."  This  plan  of 
going  by  twos  to  do  such  work  is  still  in  its  infancy  but 
has  proven  very  helpful. 

3.  T/ie  work  of  Bible  women  far  more  than  equals 
the  service  of  foreign  ladies.  In  1890  they  numbered 
3278,  while  the  missionary  women  engaged  in  woman's 
works  were  only  711.  The  patient  reiteration  of  primary 
Bible  truth  and  the  drudgery  of  teaching  stupid  ones  to 
read  the  Scriptures  she  bears,  while  her  knowledge  of  the 
depths  of  heathenism  enables  her  to  help  her  sisters 
more  effectually  than  the  American  lady.  She  can  also 
act  as  a  colporteur  to  the  women. 

Mission  Work  among  the  Sick... 

A  large  part  of  Christ's  service  on  earth  had  to  tlo 
with  the  sick  and  leprous  and  dying.  His  followers  in 
India  are  imitating  him  in  this  particular  also  and  with 
gratifying  results. 

I.  Medical  work  in  hospitals  and  dispensarias.  Of 
these,  as  we  have  seen,  there  were  166  five  years  ago. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  the  death  rate  of  British 
India  advanced  from  20.98  per  thousand  in  1880  to 
29.61  in  1890 — nearly  twice  the  rate  of  mortality  in  the 


Present  PJiases  of  Missionary  Work.  89 

United  States — and  when  one  thinks  of  the  native  physi- 
cians and  their  barbarous  practice  described  in  "Mur- 
dered MiUions"  and  other  pubHcations,  the  need  of  med- 
ical work  is  apparent.  The  attitude  of  the  educated 
Hindu  toward  this  form  of  effort  was  thus  voiced  by  one 
of  their  number  who  had  been  helped  by  Dr.  Martyn 
Clark,  and  who  had  been  asked  wh-at  Hindus  feared 
most  from  Christian  Missions: — "What  we  really  fear 
is  your  Christian  women,  and  we  are  afraid  of  your 
medical  missions ;  for  by  your  Christian  women  you  win 
our  wives,  and  by  your  medical  missions  you  win  our 
hearts,  and  when  that  is  done,  what  is  there  for  us  but 
to  do  as  you  say?" 

Special  medical  work  among  the  lepers  of  India,  of 
whom  there  are  said  to  be  half  a  million,  is  most  Christ- 
like and  its  fruits  may  be  judged  from  the  report  of  one 
institution  where  after  being  open  but  eighteen  months, 
but  five  of  the  88  inmates  remained  heathen. 

2.  The  medical  work  in  za?ianas  is  especially  needed. 
The  woman  physician  is  regarded  as  their  only  deHv- 
erer  in  many  wealthy  homes.  Male  physicians  are  of  no 
avail  to  those  who  openly  say,  "We  would  rather  die  than 
go  to  his  hospital  or  be  seen  by  him."  In  maternity 
cases  particularly  she  is  sorely  needed,  and  everywhere 
she  is  the  opener  of  doors  and  the  healer  of  souls  often- 
times as  well  as  of  sick  bodies.  Dr.  George  Smith  says: 
"The  greatest  of  all  the  blessings  which  the  evangeli- 
cal churches  of  America  have  conferred  upon  the  peo- 
ple of  British  India  is  that  of  healing  their  sick  women 
and  thus  powerfully  showing  the  practically  impris- 
oned inmates  of  the  zanana  and  harem,  and  the  multi- 
tude of  widows,  so  many  of  whom  have  never  been  wives, 
that  to  them  the  Kingdom  of  God  has  come.  Till  re- 
cently Great  Britain  could  not  thus  do  what  the  liberal 
educational  system  of  the  United  States  had  long  en- 
abled women  medical  missionaries  to  begin." 

The  Countess  Dufferin  Fund  for  Female  Medical  Aid 
**is  one  of  the  most  important  humane  efforts  of  the 
present  century.     In  far  reaching  results  it  promises  to 


$0  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident 

be  the  greatest  of  all  charities  ever  inaugurated  in  India, 
and  one  of  the  greatest  in  any  land  or  age."  While  this 
is  not  a  missionary  undertaking,  it  was  owing  to  the 
locket  carried  to  Queen  Victoria  by  a  missionary.  Miss 
Dr.  Beilby,  from  her  high-born  patient,  that  the  enter- 
prise was  undertaken.  "You  are  going  to  England,"  said 
the  Maharajah's  wife,  "and  I  want  you  to  tell  the  Queen 
and  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales  and  the  men  and 
women  of  England  what  the  women  of  India  suffer 
when  they  are  sick.  Will  you  promise  me?"  This  was 
the  message  of  the  magic  locket  which  is  so  blessing 
India's  daughters  to-day. 

3.  Visitation  of  the  sick  in  hospitals  is  the  corollary 
of  the  work  already  described.  The  enforced  leisure  of 
such  hours,  especially  during  convalescence,  presents  a 
favorable  opportunity  for  creating  religious  impressions. 

Mission  Work  through  Christian  Literature... 

There  were,  according  to  the  last  census,  15,292,750 
persons  in  the  entire  Empire  under  instruction  or  able 
to  read  and  write.  Of  the  nearly  four  million  under 
instruction,  only  about  300,000  are  taught  by  mission- 
aries or  their  employes.  About  one  million  a  year,  ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Murdoch,  leave  school  and  of  that  num- 
ber 925,000  are  totally  ignorant  of  Christian  truth. 
Many  who  do  know  something  of  it  would  not  venture  to 
seek  further  light  from  the  missionary.  Evidently, 
therefore,  there  is  ample  reason  for  pushing  the  work 
of  publishing  and  distributing  Christian  literature.  A 
good  book  is  a  cheap  but  very  effective  missionary, 

I.  Organizations  for  doing  this  work  are  principally 
the  Bible,  the  Religious  Tract,  and  the  Christian  Litera- 
ture Societies.  The  publications  of  the  Bible  Societies 
are  fundamental.  Part  or  all  of  the  Scriptures  are  pub- 
lished in  at  least  forty-three  of  the  languages  and  dia- 
lects of  India  proper.  New  and  revised  versions  are 
still  being  prepared.  The  Tract  Societies,  numbering 
ten  in  India,  powerfully  supported  by  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  of  London,  besides  the  publishing  inter- 


Present  Phases  of  Missionary  Work.  91 

ests  of  the  American  Methodists  and  the  German  Mis- 
sions, provide  a  varied  and  fairly  excellent  literature, 
both  in  English  and  in  the  vernaculars  The  Christian 
Literature  Society  aims  to  furnish  books  and  tracts  of 
a  general  character,  many  of  them  in  English,  as  well  as 
strictly  religious  works.  Some  of  the  books  most  help- 
ful for  prospective  Indian  missionaries  are  pubHshed  by 
this  organization.  All  the  societies  named  above  are  in 
need  of  competent  workers  and  it  is  a  demand  which 
should  appeal  to  some  of  our  American  students  of  lit- 
erary ability. 

2.  T/ie  distribution  of  literature  thus  provided  is  done 
through  special  colporteurs  and  the  missionary  body 
generally.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society's 
agent  reports  an  annual  circulation  of  half  a  million 
copies  of  portions  of  Scripture.  The  ten  Indian  Tract 
Societies  issued  30,879,350  copies  of  various  works  dur- 
ing the  years  1882-1891,  while  in  the  last  decade  the  Re- 
Hgious  Tract  Society  contributed  36,412  pounds  ster- 
ling to  the  work.  The  publications  of  the  Christian  Lit- 
erature Society's  predecessor  numbered  fourteen  mil- 
lions of  copies  from  1858  to  1890.  The  oversight  of 
agents  who  distribute  these  works  is  a  part  of  the  mis- 
sionary's duty  which  occasions  considerable  trouble,  but 
it  results  in  much  direct  good,  as  well  as  helps  develop 
some  of  the  best  members  of  the  native  staff. 

3.  Reading  Rooms  can  easily  be  maintained  in  con- 
nection with  preaching  halls  or  book-shops.  To  them 
could  be  drawn  many  of  the  353,515  persons  who  were 
studying  English  in  1891,  if  appropriate  books  and  pe- 
riodicals were  provided.  The  352  native  periodicals 
wholly  or  partly  in  English,  and  opposed  usually  to 
Christianity,  would  find  an  antidote  in  publications  like 
The  Epiphany,  The  Madras  Christian  College  Magazine 
and  Progress  and  the  various  helpful  books  published 
by  the  Christian  Literature  Society. 


93  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

Work  among  Native  Christians... 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  important  line  of  effort  car- 
ried on  by  the  missionaries. 

1.  Church  work,  including  preaching,  the  conduct  of 
Sunday-schools,  young  people's  societies  and  prayer 
meetings,  pastoral  visitation,  etc.,  differs  from  similar 
work  in  America  in  many  respects.  In  general  it  may 
be  said  that  the  native  Church  is  in  its  infancy,  so  to 
speak,  and  hence  needs  a  simple  Gospel,  practical  and 
very  plain  directions  concerning  the  Christian  life,  in- 
struction in  the  Bible,  aid  in  meeting  the  many  ethical 
and  moral  questions  confronting  the  convert,  develoj)- 
ment  in  the  direction  of  self-support  and  independence, 
and  a  large  emphasis  of  the  need  of  spiritual  power  and 
entire  consecration. 

2.  Association  work  for  young  men  and  also  for 
young  women  is  still  in  its  incipiency,  but,  as  Mr.  Wish- 
ard  has  so  well  shown  in  his  "New  Programme  of  Mis- 
sions," it  is  a  form  of  effort  most  hopeful  in  results.  The 
missionary  candidate  should  know  the  general  princi- 
ples underlying  the  Association  and  use  them  in  every 
large  community  of  Christian  young  men  and  women. 

3.  InstHutio7is  for  training  mission  agents  are  cen- 
ters of  great  power,  and  upon  the  proper  conduct  of  such 
schools  depends  the  future  of  the  native  church.  With- 
out the  correctives  found  here  in  the  broad  culture  of 
Christian  workers  and  observation  of  the  best  methods 
of  work  and  preaching,  the  instructor  in  these  schools 
needs  special  ability  as  organizer,  teacher  and  demon- 
strator. Above  all  he  should  know  his  Bible,  the  power 
of  prayer,  and  the  conscious  presence  of  his  Lord. 

Work  among  Anglo= Indians  and  Eurasians... 

This  line  of  effort  should  be  added  to  the  Madras  list, 
as  it  engages  the  entire  time  of  some  missionaries  and 
is  shared  in  to  some  extent  by  many  others. 

I.  The  two  classes  number  toward  half  a  million.  They 
are  widely  scattered  over  India,  as  the  former  class  is 
mainly  in  official  or  mercantile  service,  while  the  Eurasi- 


Present  Phases  of  Missionary  Work.  93 

an  is  the  result  of  English  connection  with  native  women, 
often  illicit  though  sometimes  after  marriage.  The  Eu- 
rasian is  consequently  despised  by  the  respectable  com- 
munity, and  being  under  the  care  of  a  native  mother 
during  childhood,  is  oftentimes  almost  heathen. 

2.  The  need  of  work  among  them  is  manifest.  Sir 
Andrew  Scoble,  speaking  at  a  London  meeting,  said: — 
"Let  me  tell  you  that  if,  while  sending  missionaries  to 
the  heathen  for  the  purpose  of  preaching  the  Gospel  to 
them,  you  are  neglecting  the  claims  of  the  Europeans 
and  Eurasians  in  that  country,  you  create  a  class  of  mis- 
sionaries who  do  infinitely  more  harm  to  God's  church 
than  all  the  heathen  together  can  do,  because  every  Eu- 
ropean and  every  Eurasian  who  neglects  his  duty  as  a 
Christian,  becomes  a  missionary  of  evil  to  the  people 
around  him."  How  it  actually  affects  missionary  labor 
is  well  illustrated  by  a  reply  made  to  a  missionary  by  an 
educated  Sikh  official: — "Look  at  these  Christians  of 
yours,  these  European  gentlemen  and  ladies," — point- 
ing to  a  swarm  of  Eurasian  and  Anglo-Indian  racers, 
actors,  dog  fanciers,  etc.,  who  were  near  by — "Why  don't 
you  convert  them,  instead  of  coming  to  turn  us  away 
from  our  faith?" 

3.  Difficulties  naturally  beset  such  an  enterprise.  In 
small  communities  the  Anglo-Indian  official  is  perhaps 
outwardly  upright  and  attempts  to  aid  him  religiously 
are  rebuffed.  In  the  cities  the  Eurasians  are  often  pau- 
pers— 22.3  per  cent  of  them  according  to  the  Calcutta 
Pauperism  Committee's  report — and  are  so  low  in  the 
social  scale  that  it  is  difficult  to  raise  them  from  their 
semi-heathenism.  Besides,  the  missionary  comes  pri- 
marily to  help  the  natives,  and  an  undue  emphasis  of  Eu- 
rasian effort  prevents  the  accomplishment  of  his  main,* 
design  and  interferes,  through  the  use  of  English,  with 
his  acquirement  of  the  vernacular. 

4.  The  Methods  employed  are  quite  similar  to  those 
used  to  reach  the  lower  classes  of  our  own  cities.  The 
best  material  is  naturally  the  children,  though  churches 
for  adults  are  found  in  the  great  centers.     Missionaries 


94  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

to  isolated  communities,  like  the  Scotch  in  the  jute  and 
indigo  districts,  are  helpful.  Perhaps  the  strongest  lev- 
erage comes  from  proper  schools  for  children.  Owing 
to  the  heavy  expense  of  attending  schools  for  English 
children,  Eurasians  cannot  usually  avail  themselves  of 
them,  and  so  are  educated  in  the  less  expensive  Catholic 
schools  and  convents.  The  Roman  Church  thus  adds 
to  her  strength  while  Protestantism  loses  those  who 
might  prove  valuable  assistants  in  mission  efifort.  Amer- 
ica has  done  more  than  England  or  Scotland  for  this 
element  in  Indian  society,  but  much  j-emains  undone. 

A  paragraph  should  be  added  to  emphasize  the  value 
in  most  of  the  above  lines  of  effort  of  individual  work. 
Messrs.  McConaughey,  Wilder,  White  and  other  recent 
workers  are  makinglarge  use  of  this  form  of  work.  Thetenr 
dency  of  ordinary  missionary  operations  is  toward  exten- 
sion, while  intensive  efforts  are  not  vigorously  made. 
Aside  from  the  fact  that  some  of  the  most  influential 
Hindus  are  not  accessible  in  the  mass,  better  results 
could  probably  be  secured  among  all  classes,  if  the  in- 
dividual were  sharply  aimed  at  instead  of  firing  breast- 
high,  as  the  British  did  at  Bunker  Hill.  The  poor  col- 
onist singled  out  his  man  and  the  bullet  reached  its 
mark,  bringing  victory.  Mass  movements  will  be  more 
common  in  India  only  after  every  missionary  worker, 
native  and  foreign,  learns  how  to  travail  in  soul  for  the 
individuals  with  whom  he  comes  in  contact. 


SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Encyclopaedia:  See  articles  "Medical  Missions,"  "Methods  of 
Missionary  Work,"  and  "Woman's  Work  for  Woman"  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  of  Missions. 

Bailey:    The  Lepers  in  Our  Indian  Empire,  (1891). 

Decennial  Conference,  Bombay,  (1892-1893). 
Dennis:    Foreign  Missions  after  a  Century,  (1893),  Lecture  IV. 

DowTcontt:    Murdered  Millions,  (1894),  Pp.  44-50,  79-82. 

Ellis:    Our  Eastern  Sisters,  Chs.  I.-V. 


Present  Phases  of  Missionary  Work,  95 

Hayes:    My  Leper  Friends,  (1891),  Chs.  VII.-XII. 
Hurst:    Indika,  (1891),  Ch.  LXX. 
Kennedy:    Life  and  Work  in  Benares  and  Kumaon,   (1884), 

Chs.  XL-XIV. 
Knox:    A  winter  in  India  and  Malaysia,  (1891),  Chs.  XXIIL- 

XXV. 
Lowe:    Medical  Missions,  (1886),  Chs.  IV.,  VII. 
Maxwell:    The  Bishop's  Conversion,  (1893). 
Missionary  Review    of    the    World,   Sept.    1891,   Pp.  661-669. 

Sept.  1891,  Pp.  673-677.     Apr.  1894,  Pp.  281-284.     bee.  1894, 

Pp.  921-923.    Aug.   1895,  586-588.     Sept.   1895,   Pp.   683-686. 

Sept.  1895,  Pp.  686-689. 
Murdoch:    Indian  Missionary  Manual,  (1889). 
Pierson:    New  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  (1894),  Pp.  263-264. 
RoWms:    Handbook  of  India,  (1883),  Pp.  245-260. 
Rowe:    Every-day  Life  in  India,  (1881),  Ch.  XXXVIII. 
Smith:    The  Conversion  of  India,  (1893),  Ch.  VIIL 
Strachey:    India,  (1894),  Ch.  XVI. 

Thohurn:    India    and    Malaysia,  (1893),    Chs.    XXIV.-XXX, 
XXXVI. 

Light  in  the  East,  (1894),  Chs.  VIII.-XVIII. 
Taughan:    The  Trident,  the  Crescent  and  the   Cross,   (1876), 

Chs.  IX.,  X. 
'Wisha7'd:    A  New  Programme  of  Missions,   (1895),   Chs.   I., 

IV.,  v.,  VI. 
Wilkins:    Daily  Life  and  Work  in  India,  (1888),  Chs.  XIII, 

XVII.,  XVIII. 


96  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

India's  appeal  to  American  students. 

"Also  I  heard  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  saying,  Whom  shall  I 
send,  and  who  will  go  for  us  Then  said  I,  Here  am  I;  send 
me"  — Isaiah  VI.  8. 

The  few  facts  contained  in  the  preceding  pages,  out 
of  a  mass  of  material  that  might  have  been  adduced, 
should  have  their  weight  with  the  Christian  student.  To 
make  the  appeal  more  definite,  however,  and,  also  to 
serve  as  a  review  of  the  ground  traversed  in  these  les- 
sons, a  prominent  missionary  from  India,  Rev.  J.  W. 
Conklin,  A.  M.,  and  the  well  known  Bishop  Thoburn, 
have  kindly  consented  to  voice  India's  claims.  Addi- 
tional items  from  an  article  of  Robert  P.  Wilder's,  and 
the  appeal  of  the  Bombay  Conference  will  be  given.  Mr. 
Conklin's  work  was  in  the  Arcot  field,  not  far  from 
the  territory  occupied  by  the  first  Protestant  mission- 
aries.    His  appeal  follows. 

It  is  manly  to  love  one's  country.  It  is  godlike  to  love 
the  world.  Every  foreign  missionary  must  have  a  spe- 
cial interest  in  his  own  field  of  labor,  yet  he  ought  to 
be  Christlike  enough  to  keep  the  world  before  his  eyes 
and  upon  his  heart. 

India  was  my  home  and  workshop  for  nine  years  and 
I  am  not  a  willing  exile  from  her  to-day.  Her  needs 
and  her  rewards  are  "writ  large"  upon  my  consciousness. 
Yet  in  appearing  as  her  advocate,  I  dare  not  minimize 
the  claims  of  Africa,  China,  and  other  fields  that  are  still 
not  thoroughly  sown  with  the  children  of  the  Kingdom. 

If  you,  my  brother  or  sister,  were  halting  between  a 
call  to  a  well  planted  garden  spot  at  home  and  one  to  a 


India's  Appeal  to  American  Students,  97 

seedless  barren  across  the  seas,  I  have  a  conceit  that  I 
could  almost  wax  eloquent  in  pleading  with  you  to  let 
your  one  life  follow  in  the  track  of  Paul  and  Carey  and 
Livingstone.  But  I  presume  you,  too,  have  heard  and 
accepted  the  call  on  God's  long-distance  telephone  and 
to  be  undecided  only  as  to  which  far  country  shall  be 
your  Macedonia.  Therefore,  I  may  only  ask  you  to  give 
India  a  fair  place  in  your  consideration. 

Misapprehensions  Concerning  India  as  a  Mission  Field... 

Perhaps  I  can  best  im.prove  my  privilege  by  seeking  to 
remove  some  misapprehensions  that  are  current  regard- 
ing that  land  as  a  present-day  field  for  mission  enter- 
prise. 

I.  And  first,  //  is  not  a  hopeless  field  nor  especially 
discouraging.  Some  of  the  attempts  to  prove  "Missions 
a  Failure,"  have  taken  their  data  from  that  great  land. 
During  the  past  twenty  years  there  have  been  many  dire- 
ful prophecies  of  the  arrest  of  Christian  progress  there, 
if  certain  extravagant  conditions  were  not  fulfilled.  But 
we  need  not  mind  the  calamity  howlers  or  the  perpetual 
crisis  criers.  They  have  not  stopped  one  missionary's 
work,  or  closed  one  church,  or  caused  one  Bible  or 
Tract  House  to  suspend  publication.  The  contract 
undertaken  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  of  Hosts  is  a  large 
one. 

India  has  more  inhabitants,  races,  religions  and  lan- 
guages than  all  Europe  outside  of  Russia.  More  non- 
Christians  dwell  within  her  boundaries  than  the  world's 
total  of  Protestant  Christians.  The  moral  laxity  of  the 
people,  their  pride,  mental  cowardice  and  stubborn  rev- 
erence for  the  past,  make  their  conversion  to  Christ  unu- 
sually difficult.  Yet,  notwithstanding  all  this,  the  seed 
spreads  and  grows.  Every  Government  census  and 
missionary  conference  records  and  heralds  advances  in 
all  directions.  The  general  percentage  of  growth  in 
population  is  quadrupled  by  that  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity. 

The  correspondent  of  the  London  Times  wrote  in 


98  The  Cross  in  tlie  Land  of  the  Trident. 

1893: — "The  status  of  the  native  Church  is  rising  every 
year;  so  also  are  the  character  and  acquirements  of  the 
agents."  Though  mostly  of  lowly  origin,  the  native 
Christians  are  pressing  the  lordly  and  brainy  Brahmans 
for  educational  pre-eminence.  Competent  non-mis- 
sionary observers  on  the  field  have  estimated  that  the 
number  of  secret  or  unbaptized  Christians  equals  that  of 
Church  members,  which  is  over  182,000. 

Dr.  Pentecost,  who  spent  nearly  two  years  journeying 
and  preaching  there,  declares  that  *'the  missionaries  in 
India  during  the  last  hundred  years  have  accomplished 
more  for  Christ  than  the  first  Christians  under  the  lead- 
ership of  the  apostles  accomplished  in  all  western  Asia 
and  Europe  during  the  first  century  of  Christianity." 
Bishop  Thoburn  wrote  at  the  beginning  of  1893 :  *'I  shall 
be  surprised  and  disappointed  indeed  if  the  ingathering 
of  the  next  eight  years  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  pre- 
vious ninety-two.'^  It  is  related  of  a  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionary in  the  last  century  that  after  years  of  effort  he 
gave  up  discouraged,  declaring  that  the  Hindus  were 
completely  given  over  to  Satan.  But  since  then  millions 
have  been  rescued  and  the  prospects  are  ''bright  as  the 
promises  of  God." 

2.  A  second  misapprehension  is  that  ^/le  missionary 
force  in  India  is  large  enough.  Some  Christians  at  this 
distance  have  "that  tired  feeHng"  in  regard  to  missionary 
appeals  and  assert  that  the  seed  of  the  Kingdom  has 
been  planted  widely  enough  in  India  and  may  be  le£t 
to  take  care  of  itself.  But  what  are  1,600  missionaries 
among  287,000,000  dying  sinners?  Compare  a  little. 
At  tha't  rate  less  than  two  ministers  would  suffice  for  our 
311,000  western  Indians  and  forty-two  for  our  7,470,- 
000  colored  people.  Suppose  you  add  the  four  thou- 
sand lay  native  helpers  in  India.  Even  then  there  is 
only  one  worker  to  every  51,000  inhabitants.  No:  our 
"Indian  Problem"  and  "Negro  Problem"  pale  in  signifi- 
cance beside  that  tremendous  enterprise. 

The  fervent  appeal  of  the  Bombay  Conference  of 
1893,  that  the  number  of  missionaries  might  be  doubled 


Indians  Appeal  to  American  Students,  99 

was  not  unreasonable.  Were  it  granted,  the  total  of  men 
and  women  from  abroad  would  not  equal  3500.  Could 
that  number  be  kept  mtact  for  a  quarter  of  a  century,  I 
believe  that  it  might  then  be  gradually  diminished.  You 
may  rest  assured  that  if  you  go  to  India  you  can  claim 
a  parish  of  at  least  100,000  immortal  souls. 

3.  Again,  /^  is  not  true  that  exceptional  qualifications 
are  needed  for  missionaries  for  India.  It  has  frequ^mly 
been  intimated  by  speakers  of  some  authority  that  a  can- 
didate for  that  field  should  be  able  to  meet  and  vanquish 
in  argument  a  Brahman  lawyer  or  Muhammadan  scribe 
at  any  hour  of  the  day  or  night.  But  argument  is  a  very 
small  part  of  the  missionary's  work,  and  perhaps  the  less 
of  it  he  engages  in  the  better.  Never  in  India  was  I 
pressed  harder  in  religious  controversy  by  a  Brahman 
than  in  New  Jersey  by  an  unlearned  cobbler.  If  you 
so  desire,  you  may  spend  your  labor  among  the  270,- 
000,000  natives  who  cannot  read. 

But  the  departments  of  mission  work  are  so  numerous 
that  you  must  be  peculiarly  shaped  if  you  cannot  fit  into 
one  of  them. 

(i)  India  has  room  for  you  if  you  are  an  enthusiastic 
and  winning  preacher.  Congregations  can  be  gathered 
for  you  seven  days  and  nights  in  the  week.  The  village 
system  of  living  seems  to  have  been  designed  for  the 
preacher's  convenience.  The  people  are  sufficiently  in- 
telligent and  devout  to  be  good  listeners.  The  few 
times  when  I  could  take  my  tent  and  steal  away  from 
my  schools  and  churches  to  tour  among  the  raw  heathen 
were  like  vacations  to  me.  To  preach  Christ,  our  Right- 
eousness, our  Peace,  our  Hope,  our  God,  to  those  un- 
taught multitudes,  is  a  blessed  and  delightful  work.  And 
you,  my  sister,  may  take  part  in  it.  You  cannot  be 
driven  out  of  the  pulpit,  for  you  stand  on  God's  earth. 
If  you  have  not  ordination,  rest  your  credentials  as  an- 
other did,  on  your  foreordination.  If  you  fear  ''mixed 
audiences,'^  you  may  gather  manless  companies  in  the 
zananas,  or  your  own  home. 

(2)  If  you  have  delight  and  proficiency  in    teachings 


100  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

India  has  claims  upon  you.  Never  mind  the  torrid  and 
acid  discussion  as  to  the  comparative  merits  of  evangel- 
istic and  educational  work.  Every  truly  Christian  teacher 
there  is  an  evangelist,  and  every  holder  of  a  brief  for 
the  evangelistic  side  here,  will  be  an  educationalist  there 
as  soon  after  his  arrival  as  h^  can  catch  a  scholar.  Why, 
just  meditate.  Eighteen  out  of  every  nineteen  natives, 
mixed  as  they  run,  cannot  read  a  word.  Of  women  and 
girls  not  more  than  one  in  a  hundred  would  know 
which  side  up  to  hold  a  Bible  or  tract  you  might  give. 
You  must  teach,  or  set  others  at  it,  if  you  have  any  bow- 
els of  compassion. 

And  so  you  may  find  your  sphere  in  supervising  two 
or  three  score  of  primary  schools,  keeping  teachers  and 
pupils  up  to  the  mark.  You  may  drop  into  a  post  in  a 
high  school  or  college  where  the  future  teachers,  preach- 
ers, lawyers  and  doctors  are  feeding  on  Bible  truth  sand- 
wiched between  their  science  and  history.  Or  you  may 
be  given  the  fascinating  duty  of  training  young  Chris- 
tian men  as  preachers,  or  young  women  as  preachers' 
helpmeets.  In  any  case  you  would  have  full  play  for  all 
your  pedagogic  power. 

(3)  India  beckons  to  you,  If  you  are,  or  expect  to  be, 
a  physician.  In  Lower  Bengal  there  is  only  one  public 
hospital  to  270,000  of  the  population.  Sir  W.  J.  Moore 
says  that  the  hospitals  and  dispensaries  of  all  India  do 
not  reach  more  than  five  per  cent  of  the  people.  The 
medical  missionary,  therefore,  need  not  look  farther  for 
an  abundant  opportunity.  One  of  them.  Dr.  MacPhail, 
says:  *'The  loss  of  miraculous  healing  no  more  absolves 
the  Church  of  Christ  from  obeying  her  Lord's  com- 
mand than  the  loss  of  the  Pentecostal  gift  of  tongues 
frees  her  from  the  duty  of  acquiring  new  languages  in 
order  to  spread  the  Gospel." 

The  female  physician  has  a  call  especially  loud.  She 
may  enter  homes  where  no  man  is  allowed,  and  bring  the 
balm  of  healing  to  abused  motherhood  and  neglected 
childhood.  I  have  often  felt  that  if  I  had  been  born  a 
girl,  and  could  have  studied  medicine  and  practiced  in 


Indians  Appeal  to  American  Students,  101 

India,  my  vocation  would  have  been  second  to  none  on 
earth  in  its  possibiUties  of  salvation  for  both  body  and 
spirit. 

(4)  If  you  have  taste  and  ta.hntior  library  work,  Indi^ 
needs  you.  Henry  Martyn  Scudder,  who  has  just  passed 
into  the  heavens,  preceded  his  remarkable  work  m  this 
country  by  twenty  years  of  service  in  India.  Much  of  his 
time  there  was  spent  in  preparing  books  in  Tamil  and 
Telugu  for  the  use  of  the  young  Church.  His  books 
are  still  indispensable  in  the  instruction  of  the  "babes  in 
Christ"  and  the  training  of  native  agents,  and  will  not 
soon  be  outgrown.  Those  two  languages  are  under- 
stood by  at  least  35,000,000  people.  There  have  been 
some  others  like  him,  but  far  too  few. 

If  you  searched  for  the  average  native  minister's 
library,  you  would  look  in  vain  for  great,  well-filled 
shelves.  In  a  tin  box,  smaller  than  a  steamer  trunk,  all 
of  his  books  are  carefully  guarded  against  the  ravages 
of  white  ants  and  other  insects.  He  can  procure  an 
abundance  of  English  books  if  he  has  the  money,  but 
ordinarily  he  cannot  read  them,  and  helpful  ones  in 
his  own  language  are  few.  The  Christian  Press  is  a 
power  in  the  land,  but  its  potency  could  be  multiplied 
if  efificient  authors  were  more  abundant. 

(5)  India  will  welcome  you,  if  your  brain  and  hands 
turn  to  mechanical  work.  At  a  meeting  of  representa- 
tives of  foreign  mission  boards  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada  held  in  New  York  in  February,  1895,  a  paper 
was  read  on  "Industrial  Missions"  by  Dr.  Barton  of  the 
A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  He  states  that  twenty-four  societies  re- 
ported as  being  engaged  to  some  extent  in  industrial 
work.  "India,"  he  says,  "appears  to  be  the  country 
most  inviting  to  this  form  of  work."  One  reason  for 
this  is  that  "many  of  the  natives  become  alienated  from 
their  caste  and  people  when  they  accept  Christianity. 
Thus  all  means  of  earning  a  living  are  cut  off  and  they 
are  in  danger  of  starving."  Another  reason  is  "that  in 
that  country  the  laboring  classes  are  looked  down  upon, 
and  therefore  some  are  pushing  industrial  work  to  show 


103  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident. 

that  the  student  can  work  with  both  his  hands  and  his 
head,  and  all  the  time  be  a  man." 

In  the  Arcot  Mission,  of  which  I  was  a  member, 
nearly  all  the  boys  who  are  in  training  to  be  preachers 
and  teachers,  spend  four  years  in  the  industrial  depart- 
ment, dividing  each  week-day  between  book  study  and 
hand  work.  Certainly  this  does  not  take  them  out  of 
the  line  of  Christ  and  Paul,  and  the  missionary  who 
leads  them  may  feel  that  his  work  is  not  ''one  whit  be- 
hind" that  of  others. 

(6)  If  you  aim  to  be  a  power  as  a  Christian  socio lo^ 
gist  India  offers  a  glorious  field  for  you.  Read  Luke 
iv.  1 8,  'The  program  of  Christianity,"  as  Drummond 
calls  it.  In  no  country  will  you  find  more  of  the  poor 
to  whom  to  preach,  or  more  captives  to  set  at  liberty. 
There  is  abundant  non-missionary  and  non-Christian  tes- 
timony to  the  fact  that  the  movements  for  the  emancipa- 
tion of  woman  from  the  bonds  of  involuntary  marriage 
in  childhood,  and  a  perpetual  widowhood,  and  for  the 
deliverance  of  the  50,000,000  Pariahs  or  outcastes,  from 
practical  slavery  are  mainly  due  to  missionary  influ- 
ence. 

But  these  movements  are  yet  in  their  infancy  and 
they  need  fresh  impetus  at  every  step.  Bishop  Thoburn 
says,  "The  converts  may  be  from  the  ranks  of  the  lowly, 
but  the  lowly  of  this  century  will  be  the  leaders  of  the 
next.  The  Brahman  must  accept  Christ,  or  see  the 
Pariah  walk  past  him  in  the  race  of  progress.^'  Those 
who  have  a  Christian  passion  for  seeing  valleys  rise  and 
mountains  brought  low  may  well  take  part  in  this  blood- 
less revolution. 

(7)  India  has  a  place  for  you  who  have  no  other 
marked  qualification  than  strong  love  to  Christ  and  the 
Christless.  "Lovest  thou  me?  *  *  Feed  my  sheep. 
*  *  Feed  my  lambs.'^  Dr.  J.  'Murray  Mitchell, 
learned,  brilliant  and  world-famed,  wrote  in  his  appeal 
from  the  Calcutta  Missionary  Conference,  "Even  amongst 
the  most  learned,  a  loving  heart  will  often  accomplish 
more  real  work  than  the  clearest  head.  India,  like  all 
other  lands,  must  be  won  more  by  the  heart  than  by  the 


Indians  Appeal  to  Ameiican  Students.  103 

head;  a  man  or  woman  of  ordinary  intellectual  attain- 
ments but  with  a  spirit  of  faith  and  love  and  zeal,  will, 
by  God's  blessing,  accomplish  a  great  and  good  work 
in  this  land."  "Speaking  the  truth  in  love"  is  the  win- 
ning principle  all  the  world  over. 

My  plea  is  finished.  I  leave  my  case  with  a  sympa- 
thetic jury,  who  will  look  to  the  Holy  Spirit  for  final 
charge  and  instructions.  Of  the  470  missionaries  gath- 
ered in  the  Calcutta  Conference,  Dr.  Mitchell  thought 
he  might  confidently  assert  that  "there  were  none  who 
regretted  that  they  had  given  themselves  to  this  cause, 
or  who  beheved  that  there  was  any  nobler  work  to 
which  they  could  have  consecrated  their  lives." 

Perhaps  no  Indian  missionary  is  so  prominently  be- 
fore the  American  public  as  Bishop  J.  M.  Thoburn  of 
India  and  Malaysia.  As  the  leader  in  the  present  day 
Pentecosts  of  that  land,  his  words  should  have  special 
weight  as  he  presents  the  claims  of  India.  Of  these  he 
writes : 

"First  of  all  the  Master  seems  to  point  to  that  field  as 
the  right  side  of  the  ship  where  the  net  should  be  cast  at 
the  present  time.  The  best  providential  token  which 
can  be  trusted  to  guide  us  in  seeking  our  proper  fields  ot 
labor,  is  the  call  of  souls  groping  in  darkness  and  ask- 
ing for  light.  I  have  been  thirty-six  years  connected 
with  missionary  work  in  India,  and  the  present  emer- 
gency is  above  and  beyond  any  I  have  before  known. 
Just  before  leaving  India  a  party  came  a  distance  of  100 
miles  to  ask  one  of  our  missionaries  to  send  some  per- 
son to  their  home  to  show  them  how  to  become  Chris- 
tians. Among  the  lowly  and  very  poor  we  have  had 
20,000  applications  of  this  kind  during  the  past  twelve 
months.  \ 

"All  India  is  rapidly  changing.  The  fetters  of  caste 
are  weakening.  Hundreds  and  thousands  of  the  people 
who  eschew  the  Christian  name  are  rapidly  imbibing 
the  Christian  spirit.  In  our  great  reform  efforts  in 
Calcutta  we  get  more  sympathy  from  Hindus  than  from 
higher  classes  of  Europeans.     The  spirit  of  Christ  is 


104  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

beginning  wonderfully  to  pervade  the  more  intelligent 
part  of  the  community. 

"The  missionary  in  India  is  everywhere  regarded  as  a 
friend  of  the  people.  If  few  exceptions  are  found,  they 
are  becoming  more  rare  every  year.  The  rank  and  file 
of  the  people  of  India  believe  that  the  Christian  mission- 
ary is  a  good  man,  and  they  also  believe  that  he  is  "!n 
India  for  the  good  of  the  people.  This  is  a  great  point 
gained,  but  can  only  be  fully  appreciated  by  those  who 
have  known  India  when  oftentimes  the  missionary  was 
shunned  as  a  leper,  if  not  as  an  enemy. 

"India  has  for  many  ages  exerted  a  powerful  influ- 
ence upon  surrounding  nations,  while  it  has  seldom  re- 
ceived any  religious  impression  from  its  neighbors.  In 
very  early  days  it  gave  Hinduism  to  the  great  islands  of 
the  western  archipelago.  At  a  later  day  it  gave  Budd- 
hism to  all  eastern  Asia,  while  its  influence  upon  west- 
ern Asia  and  even  Europe  in  very  remote  ages  was 
greater  than  is  genrally  known.  If  Christianized,  India 
would  at  once  become  a  powerful  factor  in  the  religious 
progress  of  all  Asia.  Even  as  it  is  the  Christianity  of 
India  is  beginning  powerfully  to  influence  all  the  re- 
gions to  the  southeast  of  that  Empire,  as  well  as  much  of 
the  border  lands  on  both  the  eastern  and  western  fron- 
tier. 

"I  should  be  very  sorry  to  advise  any  young  mission- 
ary about  to  set  out  for  any  other  country  on  the  globe 
to  change  his  plans  and  go  to  India:  but  if  such  a  pro- 
spective missionary  should  seek  my  advice  as  to  the 'best 
field  of  labor  which  presents  itself  at  the  present  time, 
I  should  unhesitatingly  tell  him  that  vast  region  in  south- 
ern Asia  known  as  India  holds  out  the  best  advantages 
and  is  best  prepared  for  missionary  effort." 

These  forceful  words  of  Mr.  Conklin  and  Bishop  Tho- 
burn  do  not  stand  alone.  In  January,  1893,  some  620 
Christian  workers  of  India,  representing  thirty-five  soci- 
eities  assembled  in  conference  at  Bombay,  the  place  of 
assembly  being  John  Wilson's  College.  An  appeal  issue"^. 
by  them  thus  begins: — "The  members  of  the  Decennial 


India's  Appeal  to  American  Students.  105 

Missionary  Conference  of  India,  assembled  in  Bombay, 
overwhelmed  by  the  vastness  of  the  work  contrasted 
with  the  utterly  inadequate  supply  of  workers,  earnestly 
appeal  to  the  Church  of  Christ  in  Europe,  America,  Aus- 
tralia, and  Asia.  We  re-echo  to  you  the  cry  of  the  un- 
satisfied heart  of  India.  With  it  we  pass  on  the  Master's 
Word  for  the  perishing  multitude,  'Give  ye  them  to  eat.' 
An  opportunity  and  a  responsibility  never  known  before 
confront  us." 

After  enumerating  briefly  the  opportunities  for  use- 
fulness in  different  directions,  already  stated  in  pre- 
vious chapters,  the  letter  ends  in  these  burning  para- 
graphs:— "In  the  name  of  Christ  and  of  these  unevan- 
gelized  masses  for  whom  he  died,  we  appeal  to  you  to 
send  more  laborers  at  once.  May  every  church  hear 
the  voice  of  the  Spirit  saying,  'Separate  me  Barnabas 
and  Saul  for  the  work  whereunto  I  have  called  them!' 
In  every  church  may  there  be  a  Barnabas  and  Saul 
ready  to  obey  the  Spirit's  promptings! 

"Face  to  face  with  two  hundred  and  eight-four  mil- 
lions in  this  land,  for  whom  in  this  generation  you  as 
well  as  we  are  responsible,  we  ask,  will  you  not  speed- 
ily double  the  present  number  of  laborers?  Will  not 
you  also  lend  your  choicest  pastors  to  labor  for  a  term 
of  years  among  the  millions  who  can  be  reached  through 
the  English  tongue?  Is  this  too  great  a  demand  to 
make  upon  the  resources  of  those  saved  by  omnipotent 
love?  At  the  beginning  of  another  century  of  missions 
in  India  let  us  all  'Expect  great  things  from  God — at- 
tempt great  things  for  God.' 

"For  the  reflex  blessings  to  yourselves,  as  well  as  for 
India's  sake,  we  beseech  you  to  'hear  what  the  Spirit 
saith  unto  the  churches.'  The  manifestation  of  Christ 
is  greatest  to  those  who  keep  His  commandments  and 
this  is  His  commandment:— 'GO  YE  INTO  ALL  THE 
WORLD  AND  PREACH  THE  GOSPEL  TO 
EVERY  CREATURE.'" 

A  final  word  from  Robert  P.  Wilder,  the  great  Stu- 
dent Volunteer  founder  and  leader,  may  appropriately 


106  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trideni. 

close  this  little  volume.     It  is  extracted  from  an  article 
printed  in  the  VOLUNTEER  for  June,  1894. 

"India  needs  one  thousand  Spirit  filled  Volunteers 
now."  *  *  "Now."  In  publishing  our  cablegram, 
two  leading  papers  have  omitted  this  word.  Allow  me 
to  state  in  behalf  of  Mr.  White  and  myself  that  this  word 
is  not  an  hyperbole.  We  meant  it  when  we  wired.  We 
mean  it  still. 

1.  Numbers  say  "NOW."  In  Bengal  there  are 
20,000,000 — one-third  of  the  population  of  the  United 
States — without  any  missionary.  Body  after  body  has 
been  carried  past  me  to  the  funeral  pyre.  I  have  heard 
the  Bengali  bearers  cry  out  in  the  darkness — "Hori  bol," 
"Hori  bol,"  (call  on  Hari).Do  you  wonder  that  I  cable 
now?  These  20,000,000  are  not  only  rushing  on  to 
Christless  graves,  but  they  know  not  Christ.  Place  1000 
volunteers  among  them  and  each  volunteer  would  be 
responsible  for  twenty  thousand  souls!  But  Bengal  is 
only  one  of  India's  provinces. 

Why  "Now?"  Because  the  population  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing; since  1881  it  has  increased  by  26,000,000 — 
about  ten  per  cent  in  a  decade. 

2.  The  crisis  says  "now."  Western  civilization  is 
flooding  India,  but  railways,  telegraphs,  post-offices  and 
colleges  do  not  save  souls.  They  give  a"wider  knowl- 
edge of  the  world's  w^ays,  but  with  this  comes  also  a 
wider  knowledge  of  the  world's  vices — and  the  loss  more 
than  balances  the  gain."  It  is  high  time  that  Christian- 
ity flooded  this  Empire.  What  are  these  two  million 
who  know  English,  reading?  Cheap,  immoral  and  in- 
fidel trash  from  Europe  and  America.  The  Rev.  S. 
Mateer,  of  Travancore,  speaks  as  follows: — "There  is 
a  crisis  in  all  departments  in  India.  Now  is  the  time, 
if  India  is  not  to  be  poisoned  with  evil,  skeptical,  infidel 
literature." 

Satan  says  "now."  He  is  pouring  his  forces  into  this 
land.  He  is  using  the  17,000  post-offices  and  letter 
boxes  to  disseminate  literary  filth.  He  is  using  the 
railroads  to  carry  pilgrims  v/ho  formerly  walked     to 


Indians  Appeal  to  American  Students,  107 

heathen  shrines.  In  Calcutta  there  are  four  thousand 
college  students  and  three  thousand  reading  for  en- 
trance to  the  colleges.  For  several  months  I  have  been 
working  among  these  seven  thousand  bright  fellows. 
I  have  lectured  to  them  in  the  open  squares  and  in  Mis- 
sion Colleges.  They  have  come  to  my  home  where  I 
have  had  nearly  five  hundred  interviews.  They  are  plas- 
tic now.  Soon  our  opportunity  to  reach  them  will  be 
gone.  Is  there  a  greater  crisis  conceivable  than  that 
among  these  men  who  are  the  brain  of  Bengal?  They 
are  reading  works  attacking  Christianity.  But  on  such 
a  question  veterans  should  speak,  so  I  quote  one  who 
has  spent  over  thirty  years  in  India. 

De  Messmore  writes  as  follows  in  the  'Tndian  Wit- 
ness" of  May  5th,  1894: — 'Tndia  cannot  wait,  simply 
because  in  her  case  waiting  means  the  adoption  of  Eu- 
ropean civilization  without  European  Christianity,  and 
the  work  of  moral  and  spiritual  regeneration  will  be  in- 
conceivably more  difficult  than  it  would  be  were  the  Gos- 
pel given  to  her  during  the  days  of  her  transition.     *     '*' 

*  *  If  the  change  is  completed  without  the  Bible,  and 
the  new  civilization  of  India  crystalizes  into  a  godless, 
irreligious  life,  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  make  any 
moral  impression  upon  it  by  teaching  Christian  doc- 
trine.    It  is  'now  or  never,'  almost." 

Bishop  Thoburn,  who  has  spent  thirty-four  years  in 
this  land,  writes:  'The  Christian  missionaries  of  India 
have  been  brought  face  to  face  with  a  responsibility  and 
an  opportunity  such  as  our  fathers  never  knew.*     *     * 

*  If  such  an  opportunity  has  ever  been  presented  to 
the  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  since  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
I  have  strangely  failed  to  hear  it.'' 

Col.  G.  A.  Jacobs,  late  of  Bombay  Staff  Corps,  says 
after  thirty-five  years  residence  in  India: — *Tt  is  a  criti- 
cal time.  The  opportunities  may  soon  pass.  If  the 
work  is  done  lat  all,  it  must  be  done  AT  ONCE." 

The  unevangelized  millions,  the  unexampled  cris?B 
and  the  swiftly  passing  opportunity  cry — "NOW!" 


108  The  Cross  in  the  Land  of  the  Trident, 

SUGGESTED  READINGS. 

Dennis:    Foreign  Missions  after  a  Century,  (1883),  Lecture  II. 

Gracey:    India,  (1884),  Pp.   174-193. 

Missionary  Review  of  the  World,  Apr.  1893,  Pp.  248-255. 

Piei'son:    New  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  (1894),  Pp.  171-205. 

Smith:    The  Conversion  of  India,  (1893),  Chs.  IX.,  X. 

Temple:    India  in  1880,  (1882),  Ch.  VII. 

Yaughan:    The  Trident,  the   Crescent  and  the   Cross,   (1876)^ 

Ch.  XI  and  Appendix. 
WilMns:    Daily  Life  and  Work  in  India,  (1888),  Ch.  XIX. 


APPENDIX  fl. 

India  :  its  Area  and  Population  in  Towns  and  VrOiAGES, 

1891. 


1 

2 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7                8 

Persons  per 

Percentage  of 

Province,  State,  or 
Agency. 

Area 

in 
Square 
MUes. 

Population 

in 

February 

1891. 

* 

1 

II 
^1 

Net  Increase  of 

Population  since 

1881.  t 

(2 

Total. 

Urban. 

Madras. 

141,189 

35,630,440 

252 

578 

9-56 

15-58 

10-75 

Bombay        .       .        . 

77,275 

15,985,270 

207 

635 

19-49 

13-71 

j-  10-29 

Sindh     . 

47,789 

2,871,774 

60 

686 

11-92 

18-97 

Bengal  .... 

151,543 

71,346,987 

471 

301 

4-82 

6-89 

7-37 

North-West  Provinces . 

83,286 

34,254,254 

411 

384 

12-70 

4-55 

2-24 

Oudh     .... 

24,217 

12,650,831 

522 

494 

7-60 

11-09 

5-82 

Punjab  .... 

110,667 

20,866,847 

188 

548 

11-56 

10-74 

7-93 

Upper  Burma 

83,473 

2,946,933 

35 

246 

12-60 

.. 

Lower      ,,             .        . 

87,957 

4,658,627 

53 

236 

12-35 

24-67 

7-86 

Central  Provinces 

86,501 

10,784,294 

125 

299 

6-85 

9-61 

7-11 

Assam     and      North! 
Lushai  Land    .       / 

49,004 

5,476,833 

112 

818 

1-86 

11-30 

10-37 

Berar     .... 

17,718 

2,897,491 

163 

464 

12-45 

8-41 

8-49 

Coorg     .... 

1,583 

173,055 

109 

348 

8-96 

-2-94 

-7-36 

Ajmer-Merwdra    . 

2,711 

642,358 

200 

681 

21-87 

17-72 

22-44 

Quetta,     Aden,     and\ 
Andamans       .       / 

Total  British  Provinces 

Haidarabdd  . 

80 

86,958 

•• 

•• 

•• 

964,993 

221,172,952 

229 

383 

9-22 

9-70 

8-50 

82,698 

11,537,040 

139 

539 

9-45 

17-18 

11-09 

Baroda  .... 

8,226 

2,415,396 

294 

693 

20-02 

10-54 

7-02 

Mysore  .... 

27,936 

4,943,604 

177 

274 

12-67 

18-09 

13-55 

Kashraer 

80,900 

2,543,952 

31 

287 

7-77 

Rajpootana  ... 

130,268 

12,016,102 

92 

363 

12-73 

20-22 

12-22 

Central  India 

77,808 

10,318,812 

133 

297 

9-34 

9-92 

7-27 

Bombay  States     . 

69,045 

8,059,298 

117 

475 

14-61 

10-35 

12-67 

Madras        „ 

9,609 

3,700,622 

385 

1703 

4-73 

10  63 

0-85 

Central  Province  States 

29,435 

2,160,511 

73 

207 

1-79 

26-36 

12-09 

Bengal  States 

35,834 

3,296,379 

93 

174 

0-50 

18-30 

8-85 

North -West  Province! 
States       .        .       / 

5,109 

792,491 

155 

309 

13-02 

6-84 

2-01 

Punjab  States 

38,299 

4,263,280 

111 

212 

10-71 

10-42 

6-77 

Fort  Steadman  (Sh4n)\ 
Outposts)         .       / 

Total  Feudatory  States 

Total  India  . 

2,992 

•• 

•• 

•• 

595,167 

66,050,479 

111 

338 

10-38 

15-52 

12-32 

1,560,160 

287,223,431 

184 

872 

9-48 

10-96 

9-40 

*  Places  of  under  10,000  inhabitants,  including  the  smaller  towns. 
t  Excluding  tracts  and  towns  not  enumerated  in  1881  as  well  as  in  189L 


& 

43 


DQ 

><  1 

UJ  ":  - 

0-  £ 


I 


C 

o 

(A 


c 


•g  "a  ui  araooui 


•saBiioQ  ni  SHOT! 


-onj^sui   aapufi 


•siooqos 


•j'Ba^  ^s'Bi  pappv 


•siuBDiunuinioo 


•saqojnqo 


o^^ooocMi-ieo      eo-<co 


«ooo 


ift  Tf     •  OS  lO  O 

^  r-    •  (N  00 1> 


00  CO 

a© 


00  ■*  ift  Tfi  o  o  OS  < 

(M  to  — -^  00  O  (M  1 
>ft        (N  05_CQ  (M        < 


«DOu0(M00O0D00Q'^inQ«0 
0«OTt«0000-^0'-il^OCO 
■<J'-^00eOCO(Mir5(M-HMCOM 


)-^OieOOOO«3C3S0300t^< 

>  in -^  T-i  i^  ta  CO  oi  iii     oo< 

)«0  W  1-c  M«0  < 


'  t- CQ  O  «0  (M  05  (M ' 


<  00  eo 


•sjaaoqBT:  aAiiB^ 


p  . 

ce  c3 

«  O  M 


•aiBraa^ 


•suoi^B'ts-ino 


•SUiB^S  I'BdTOUUtI 


eoo5«oi>oDtt>t-»ONooe*oco 


1 00 1»  lO  00 1«  eo  >-i -^  ■*  o     eokftioo 


J  ill 

.  o  >-  r:  o 
••"— O  3  •  a  53  o 

o  Ts"-'-'  ce  ^  i>  ^  <u  "^  o 
fl  'm  'C  -d  ►-  ci3  x5 13  -d  a  S 

(Uc«i;j0-^c!000<p-^(P(Da«d 

ii.C'X'CJSQjaioSceJi.s^Qj^.iS 


a  3  o3 
U3  g'S  ce 


8gg     §SS 

i  ^  lii^ 

S§ 

S5 

S 

6 

ss 

11 

g 

2gE:"    S^^2    '^    t2'"wS=^3:i82^S"'" 

^ 

z 

si ;  iii 

.  i 

III 

gl 

i 

'"      :    ^8 

1-1        iO 

OS 

s 

s©        • 

s 

rrss   i:^??§ 

o 

S8g 

ill 

s 

o 

iOT^-. 

o 

N               »o      ^-. 

«o 

\a 

i 

gCO-H       OOC.gJg       -       -J<7» 

«0^lft 

^05  00 

w 

»rt 

^g22    S§§^    *    ?:  • 

?^  • 

ss§§ 

i 

"« 

-^ 

'^ 

gj 

S§^   SSS^   J^   S; 

^ 

ill 

? 

t-"              TT  —  eo  .^              w 

«r 

i 

^eo«      Ttw?©-^ 

g!^ 

^§ 

-i- 

in 

S^''    |gSS    ^    S2 

S"^i 

S|S«= 

CO 

ooi^w     gOi;;0     -     ^5C0 

g^^s 

g^- 

1 

g^N     goorrao     M     «^ 

-g5^  . 

OOi^rf 

1 

§«  :    :5:^^^    ^    ^^ 

OS 

o«« 

?J 

la 

^„-      «^ooo      ^      -^ 

^s 

lOTJI^Tj 

1 

i    iii 

i§il 

g 

■•  :e? 

:5  ;q 

? 

:  :  08 

J^  •■"" 

fa 

X3 

c 

Ml 

:  "S 

"3^  :>, 

* 

•'Z 

< 

c 
c 
> 

3 

opal  Church.  S 
stant  Church.. 

dist . 

opal  Foreign 

:itr>^- 

"S"*-! 

c 

•a 
•1 

1 

5h  :c 

>  £3  O  „ 

a 

1 

3  a 

2y 

X 

^          t 

o  a>  o  ^ 

a:  p  S  oi^lS 

^is^  o  o  (-I 

e3"S'3  a!»J3 

OCfl<Dr3ff)*^'^"^>-5 

I           'I 

5         § 

!          H 

*  « ir  «  >=  o  o 

11 l|i|ilifi|liiiiiii|il 

5 

1 

5 

> 
^ 

ii 

5P 

s 

f 

:  c 
3^ 

ll 

5< 

{ 

g  a  08 
C.5.H 

W   O   w 


«  «  (U 


o2 
•-1  0,  - 


1  GJ  ^  ■» 


55  (« ■ 


"1  o.  a 


pi  ^  ©  © 


(D  "^ 
*o    <» 

11 

O)     d 

b  o 
:=!  o 
o 

d  H 
^   I 

U   ^     (D 

d         tH 

«  ^  a 


o  »„ 

O 

be  CO 


d 

d 

JO 

d 

d 

a 
a 

o 
o 

(U 

,d 


^SS 


9i 

c 

*     5 

d  s 

CD 

><    I 

i 

C 

a.  I 

1 


Q 
Z 

Q- 


•BpBU^O 

i 

i 

S 

1' 

i 

uj  suoi^nqiJiuoo 

«» 

g; 

i 

1 

i 

•sj^lioa  nt 

§ 

55? 

c. 

^ 

suoT^nqu^uoo  8aiibk 

«© 

N 

lO" 

sg 

•uoiionnsui  japuo. 

g    § 

i 

s 

lO 

o 

•siooqos 

"     s     s 

eo 

2 

i 

«        t-        T»i 

fO 

'ivqS.  as'Bi  pappv 

'     s 

CO 

gi 

2- 

.-1             IM             W 

^ 

CO 

a» 

•siu^omnraraoo 

s     s 

^ 

s 

eS 

eo 

" 

eo" 

00 

•saqojnqo 

'        ^        ^ 

83 

S 

§ 

•siajoqBi  aAi^-BiS: 

>f 

^ 

§ 

^ 

1 

a  1 

O  o  " 

•ei-Binaj 

CJ 

a 

8 

lO 

§ 

■<)' 

o^-C 

IS" 

•8IBPI 

«c 

- 

to 

^ 

?! 

•suon'Bis-^no 

■^ 

ec 

^ 

§ 

«o 
c5 

•SUOIIBIS  IBdtOUTld: 

«c 

o 

00 

g§ 

s 

t>> 

> 

o  : 

Cj 

o 

1 

1  ^ 

1 

&: 

s 

ei   • 

a 

^ 

fl 

ce 

.2o 

S 

g 

o 

1 

2^ 

e 

O 

CO 

•3 

a? 

1 

c3 

^ 
S 

id 

> 

CP  03 

o 

P 

■1 

^  a. 

0.2 

P 

1 

03 

o 

c3 

c3 

J 

U 

M 

n 

^ 

Cl* 

.^ 

i,     * 

flPPBNDIX   D/ 

Dean  VahPs  Missionary  Statistics  for  1893. 

The  invaluable  tables  prepared  by  Rev.  J.  Vahl,  Presi- 
dent of  the  Danish  Missionary  Society,  and  published  at 
Copenhagen  in  1894,  give  the  missionary  statistics  collected 
by  this  indefatigable  statistician  for  years  1891-92.  His 
pamphlet  is  entitled  "  Missions  to  the  Heathen,"  and  hence 
does  not  include  work  done  by  any  missionary  societies 
among  Greeks,  Armenians,  Roman  Catholics,  Jacobites,  or 
any  people  bearing  the  Christian  name.  His  tables  do  not 
include  the  wives  of  missionaries.  The  following  is  the 
Summary  from  Dean  Vahl's  tables  : — 


Societies  in 


England 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Netherlands 

Germany 

Switzerland 

Denmark 

France 

Norway 

Sweden 

Finland 

U.  S.  of  America    

British  North  America 

West  Indies 

Asia  

Africa 

Australia 

Totals  in  1898 

Totals  in  1891 

Increase 


27 


Income. 


$5,933,860 

1,020,655 

101,685 

86,485 
722,050 
257,( 

33,505 

89.560 
130,860 
108,575 

16,505 

3,734,700 

350,437 

367,100 

73,600 
232,790 
209,885 


$13,469,332 
13,057,845 


$411,487 


^9 


^S" 


,810 

254 

23 

144 

525 

148 

11 

41 

66 

70 

5 

,619 

119 

311 


134 


5,503 
5,061 


441 


128 
5 
3 
8 

30 
33 
3 
1,087 
73 
5 
10 
26 
19 


2,771 
2,479 


Native. 


,204 
37 
91 
23 

110 


4.285 


604 


20,112 

2,256 

128 

436 

3,387 


^1 

1,185 

45 

3 

8,343 

385 
1,003 

392 

547 
6,506 


45,683 


5,901 


sg 


311,014 

25,949 

464 

85,586 

95,763 

13,526 

299 

9,861 

23,637 

285 

170 

237,411 

12,557 

159,337 

6,462 

45,877 

51,200 


1,079,398 
1,006,816 


72,582 


*From  the  American  Board  Almanac  of  Missions,  1895. 


Date  Due 

1^2  '41 

) 

^^""^'i**. 

■Mil 

^ 

